Beliefs in Society Superset
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510 Terms
What are the three main definitions of religion?
Substantive
Functional
Social constructionist
What is the substantive definition according to Weber (1905)?
Religion is a belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically.
What type of definition is the substantive definition?
An exclusive definition.
How can the substantive definition of religion be criticised?
It excludes many beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religion.
It is ethnocentric and ignores practices like Buddhism.
What is the functional definition of religion?
Religion is something that performs psychological functions it performs for individuals or society.
How does Durkheim (1915) define religion?
Religion is based on the contribution it makes to social integration.
What does Yinger (1970) say about the definition of religion?
He identifies the functions religion performs for people, such as identifiying the big questions in life.
What type of definition is the functional definition?
It is an inclusive definition.
How can the functional definition of religion be criticised?
Just because an institution helps integrate individuals, it does not make it a religion.
What is the constructionist definition of religion?
They take an interpretivist approach and believe that it’s not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion as it means something different to everyone.
Who uses Scientology to show that the definition of religion can be contested?
Aldridge (2013)
What does Aldridge (2013) say about the definition of religion?
They use views on Scientology to show that definitions of religion can be contested and are influenced by those in power.
Whilst followers of Scientology see it as a religion, the government refuses to acknowledge it as a relgion and have even tried to ban it.
How can the constructionist definition of religion be criticised?
It makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion.
What does Durkheim (1915) say about the key features of religion?
The key feature of religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane.
Who said that the key feature of religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane?
Durkheim (1915)
What is the sacred?
The things that are set apart and are forbidden; they inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder.
What is the profane?
The things that are ordinary and mundane.
What does Durkheim (1912) say about totemism?
Argues that the essence of all religion could be found in studying the simplest type of society - clan society.
He argued that when these groups worshiped the totem, they were subconsciously worshipping society as well.
This is because the totem inspires feelings of awe because it represents the power of the group that these individuals rely on.
Who looked at totemism in an Aboriginal Australian tribe to explain the essence of all religion?
Durkheim (1912)
What is a collective conscience?
The shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals person.
What other function does Durkheim (1915) say religion performs?
Religion is a source of our intellectual capacities.
This is because religion provides the categories such space, time and cause needed for humans to develop and share our thoughts.
How can Durkheim’s (1915) theory on religion be criticised? [5]
The idea of totemism is not based on strong evidence.
Worsley (1956): among those clans, there is no clear division between the sacred and the profane.
Durkheim’s theory of totemism can’t be applied to other religions.
Durkheim’s theory can explain social integration within communities, but not conflict between them.
Mestrovic (2011): as a postmodernist, he believes that Durkhieim’s ideas are not relevant.
Who said that religion performs psychological functions for individuals?
Malinowski (1954)
What does Malinowski (1954) say about religion?
Religion promotes solidarity by performing psychological functions that help people cope with emotions that undermine social solidarity.
What two situations does Malinwoski (1954) identify in whcih religions performs its psychological functions?
Where the outcome is important but uncertain or uncontrollable.
At times of life crises.
What example does Malinowski (1954) give of religion performing pscyhological functions during times of uncertainty?
In his study of the Trobian Islanders, he contrasts lagoon fishing with ocean finishing.
Lagoon fishing came with no rituals as it was safe and predictable.
Ocean fishing, however, is more dangerous so the islands perform canoe magic to ensure a safe expedition.
This gives the islanders a sense of control and eases tension.
He argues that rituals act a a god of the gaps that give humans control when they don’t have any.
Who argues that death is the main reason that religion exists?
Malinowski (1954)
What does Malinowski (1954) argue is the main reason religion exists?
Death
What essential functions of religion does Parsons (1967) identify?
It creates and legitimates society’s central values.
It is the primary source of meaning.
According to Parsons (1967), how does religion create and legitimate society’s central values? [2]
Religion makes society’s basic norms and values sacred.
E.g. Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline.
According to Parsons (1967), how is religion a primary source of meaning? [2]
Religion answers the ultimate questions about the human condition. e.g. why do good people die young?
Such events may make life seem meaningless and cause people to drift from society’s values, but religion answers these questions and helps maintain stability.
Who argues that civil religion unites all people in America? [2]
Parsons (1991)
Bellah (2013)
What does Parsons (1991) say about how religion unifies society?
What unifies America is an overarching civil religion.
In America, the civil religion is a faith in Americanism.
What is a civil religion?
A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.
What does Bellah (2013) say about civil religion? [4]
American’s civil religion includes loyalty to the nation-state and belief in God.
Symbols and rituals such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag, singing the national anthem and reciting phrases such as “One nation under God” help express what it means to be a true American.
However, the God that the nation is under isn’t a God of a specific religion, but rather an American God.
This sacralises the American way of life and unites many Americans from different ethnic and religious backgrounds.
What are functional alternatives to religion?
Non-religious beliefs and practices that perform functions similar to those of organised religion.
How can the concept of functional alternatives ignore what makes religion distinctive?
Functional alternatives ignore what makes religion distinctive, whist most would argue is a belief in the supernatural.
How can functionalist theories on religion be criticised? [3]
It over-emphasises the positive function of religion, ignore the negative aspects such as it being a source of oppression of women.
It ignores religion as a source of division and conflict.
Some don’t seen civil religion as an actual religion.
Overall, what is the Marxist view on religion?
Marxists view religion as an ideology thta distorts people’s perception of reality in a way that serves the interests of the ruling class.
What is an example of religion legitimating the suffering of the poor?
In Christianity, the Bible says that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.
What does Lenin say about religion?
He describes religion as the spiritual gin of the poor that creates a mystical fog that obscures reality.
In what ways does religion create a false class consciousness? [2]
It makes the suffering of the poor seem to be somethting inevitable and God-given.
It legitimates the power of the ruling class by making their position seem God-ordained.
What is an example of religion legitimating the power of the ruling class?
In the 16th century, the idea of the Divine Right of Kings was hte beleif that the King was God’s representative on earth, making obedience to the king extremely sinful.
What does Marx (1844) say about religion?
He sees religion as a product of alienation.
Religion acts as an opiate that dulls the pain of exploitation and alienation without actaully treating it.
Religion cannot solve our earthly problems, so distracts us by promising a perfect afterlife.
How can Marxist theories on religion be criticised?
Marx ignores the positive functions of religion, such as psychological adjustment to misfortune.
Neo-Marxists believe that certain forms of religion assist rather than hinder the development of class consciousness.
Althusser (1971): rejects the concept of alienation as unscientific and a romantic idea that human beings have a “true self”.
Religion does not always function well as an ideology that controls the population.
Abercrombie et al (2015): argue that in pre-capitalist society, religion had a limited impact on the peasantry.
Overall, what is the feminist view of religion?
Many feminists view religion as a patrairchal institution that perpetuates gender inequality.
What is the main evidence of patriarchy in religion? [4]
Religious organisations
Places of worship
Sacred texts
Religious laws and customs
How are religious organisations patriarchal? [3]
Many of them are male-dominated, even though more women participate in them.
E.g. Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests.
Armmstrong (1993): this exclusion acts as evidence of women’s marginalisation.
Who says that women’s exclusion from religious leadership roles is a sign of women’s marginalisation?
Armstrong (1993)
How are places of worship patriarchal? [6]
They often segregate the sexes and marginalise women.
E.g. seating women behind screens whilst men take up the central, more sacred spaces.
Women’s participation may be limited, e.g. not being allowed to preach or read from sacred texts.
Taboos surrounding menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth exist.
E.g. In Islam, menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur’an.
Holm (2001): describes this as the devaluation of women in religion.
Who argues that women’s treatment in places of worship is the devaluation of women in religion?
Holm (2001)
How are sacred texts patriarchal? [4]
Predominately feature the actions of male gods and prophets.
They are normally written and interpreted by men.
Stories often feature anti-female stereotypes.
E.g. Eve who in the book of Genesis caused humanity’s fall from grace.
How are religious laws and customs patriarchal? [5]
They may give women fewer rights than men, e.g. access to divorce, dress codes etc.
Religious influences on cultural norms → unequal treatment.
E.g. genital mutation and punishment for promiscuity.
Many religions legitimate and regulate women’s traditional and domestic reproductive role.
E.g. the Catholic Church bans abortion and artificial contraception.
Who says that the exclusion of women from Catholic priesthood shows that Church’s unease about female independence?
Woodhead (2002)
What does Armstrong (1993) say about religion and patriarchy historically?
Earlier religions often placed women at the centre/
E.g. earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priesthoods were found all throughout the Middle East until around 6,000 years ago.
However, 4,000 years ago the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, all-powerful male God and male profits.
Who said that in the past religions often placed women at the centre?
Armstrong (1993)
What does Saadawi (1980) say about religion? [4]
Argues that religion is not the direct cause of women’s subordination.
Women’s subordination is the result of patriachal forms of soceity emerging in the last few thousand years.
These structures then shaped and influenced religion.
E.g. men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured the patriarchy.
Who argues that religion is not the direct cause of women’s subordination?
Saadawi (1980)
How does Woodhead (2009) criticise the feminist view of religion? [4]
They criticise feminists for simply equating religion with the patriarchy.
She emphasises that not all religion oppresses women.
She notes that there are religious forms of feminism which allows women to use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.
Women aslo use religion to gain status and respect for their roles in the private sphere.
What is an example of a religious forms of feminism? [2]
Wearing a hijab to Western feminists may be seen as a form of oppression, but to the wearer it may be a means of oppression.
Many British Muslim women may choose to wear the hijab to gain parental approval or enter further education and employment.
What did Brusco (1995; 2012) observe amongst women in Colombia? [4]
They found that belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for many women.
Despite prominent gender roles, women can use religion to increase their power and influence.
E.g. Pentecostals strongly believe that men should respect women, and this gives women the power to command respect from men.
Activities linked to the Church, such as Bible study groups, can also be used to find female support.
Who criticsed feminists for simply equating religion with the patriarchy?
Woodhead (2009)
Who found that belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women?
Brusco (1995; 2012)
Who identifies a trend of piety movements?
Rinaldo (2010)
What did Rinaldo (2010) identify?
They identified a trend of piety movements.
Even within these conservative religions, women may sometimes find ways to further their own interests.
What are piety movements?
Conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s role, modesty, prayer and Bible study.
How can Rinaldo’s (2010) take on piety movements be criticsed?
Most members of these piety movements are middle-class urban women, who already have the resource to pursue their goals.
What are other examples of non-patriarchal religions? [5]
Liberal protestant organisation such as Quakers and the Unitarians are often committed to gender equality.
They allow women to play leading roles.
E.g. a third of Unitarian ministers are female.
The Church of England has had female priests since 1992 and female bishops since 2015.
Over a fifth of the Church of England priests are female.
Who argues that Calvinism helped bringed about modern capitalism?
Weber (1905)
What does Weber (1905) say about modern capitalism? [4]
Capitalism had existed in the past but took the form of greed for wealth and luxury consumption.
But modern capitalism is based on the systemic, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake.
This is what Weber calls the spirit of capitalism.
Weber argues that the spirit of capitalism has an elective affinity.
What is an elective affinity?
When something has an unconscious similarity to a religion’s beliefs or attitudes.
What are the main Calvinist beliefs? [4]
Predestination
Divine transcendence
Asceticism
A vocation or calling
What is the Calvinist idea of predestination? [2]
God had predetermined which souls would be saved (the elect) and which ones would not.
There is nothing that individuals could do to alter this.
What is the Calvinist idea of divine trascendence?
The idea that God is so far beyond this world that no human could possibly know his will.
What is the Calvinist practice of asceticism?
This refers to abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial.
What is the Calvinist idea of a vocation or calling?
The idea that every believer has a God-given calling to work diligently in their profession.
What is the consequence of God’s divine transcendence for Calvinists?
This creates an unprecedented inner loneliness and when combined with the doctrine of predestination → salvation panic as Calvinists can never know if they are going to be saved or not.
What are the two types of asceticisms/vocations?
Other-wordly and this-worldly
What was the consequences of the Protestant work ethic?
Their wealth performed ideological functions as they believed it was a sign of God’s favour so reduced their salvation panic.
They ended up accumulating wealth in the most efficient ways possible and spent it efficiently (e.g. investing in their business) rather than squandering.
Weber ultimately sees this as the spirit of capitalism, collecting wealth for wealth’s sake.
What two religions does Weber (1905) point out failed to bring about modern capitalism?
Hinduism and Confucianism
Why did Hinduism and Confucianism fail to bring about modern capitalism?
Although, like Calvinism, Hinduism was an ascetic religion it focused on other-worldly asceticism.
Contrastingly, Confucianism was a this-worldly religion, however it did not promote asceticism.
How can Weber’s (1905) view on religion and social change be evaluated?
Weber’s work is often seen as a “debate with Marx’s ghost” where, unlike Marx, he looks at how factors other than material ones brought about capitalism.
Kautsky (1972): Weber overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in the emergence of capitalism.
Tawney (1926): argues it was technological change that led to capitalism. The bourgeoisie adopted Calvinist beliefs after capitalism had emerged to legitimate their pursuit of profit.
Capitalism did not develop in every country with a significant Calvinist population, e.g. Scotland.
AO3: Marshall (1982): this was because of the lack of investment capital and skilled labour, demonstrating Weber’s point that both material and social factors impact change.
Some believe that the Calvinists became the first capitalists, similar to Jews in Eastern Europe, because they had been excluded from many other professions so creating businesses was one of the few ways to make a living.
AO3: Many religious minorities have been excluded from society but not all became successful capitalists.
Who compares two religiously inspired movements when looking at religion and social protest?
Bruce (2003)
What does Bruce (2003) look at?
He uses case studies and compares two examples of the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America: the civil rights movement and the New Christian Right.
What does Bruce (2003) say about religion and the American civil rights movement?
Bruce describes the black clergy as the backbone of the movement.
Bruce sees religion in this context as an ideological resource that provides beliefs and practices that protesters could draw on for motivation and support.
In what ways, according to Bruce (2003) was the clergy the backbone of the civil rights movement? [4]
Dr Martin Luther King played a major role, giving support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activists.
The churches provided meeting places and sanctuary from the threat of white violence.
Religious rituals, e.g. prayer and hymn singing, were a source of unity in the face of oppression.
The black clergy were able to shame the whites into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian values.
In what ways, according to Bruce (2003), was the civil rights movements an example of religion being a tool for social protest? [4]
Taking the moral high ground — The Black clergy pointed out the hypocrisy of the white clergy who preached “love thy neighbour” whilst supporting racial segregation.
Channelling dissent — Religion provides channels to express political dissent.
Acting as honest broker — Churches can provide a context for negotiating change as they are respected by both sides in a conflict and seen as as above politics.
Mobilising public opinion — Black churches in the South successfully campaigned for support across the whole of America.
What are the aims of the New Christian Right?
It’s a politically and morally conservative, Protestant fundamentalist movement with the aims of bringing America “back to God” by making abortion, homosexuality, gay marriage and divorce illegal.
What is a key way in which the New Christian Right try to promote their views?
Through televangelism to help convert people.
According to Bruce (2003), why is the New Christian RIght unsuccessful?
Its campaigners find it difficult to cooperate with people of other religions, even when they’re in agreement on the same issues.
It lacks widespread support and has met with strong opposition from groups who stand for freedom of choice.
What conclusion does Brucce (2003) come to regarding the success of religiously motivated social protest?
Comparing the civil rights movements to the New Christian Right suggests that to achieve success, the beliefs and demands of the protests need to be consistent with those of wider society.
Why do Marxists believe that religion is not an entirely conservative force?
It has some relative autonamy.
What does Engels (1895) say about religion and social change?
Religion has a dual character that allows it to both inhibit and aid change.
Who says that religion has a dual character?
Engels (1895)
What does Block (1959) say about religion and social change? [4]
He also sees that religion has a dual character that can have both a positive and negative influence on social change.
Religion is an expression of the principle of hope that promises a utopia.
Although this utopia can sometimes deceive people, it can also help them see what changes needed to be made in the world.
Therefore, religious beliefs can create a vision of a better world → social change.
Who argued that religion can create a vision of a utopia that can lead to social change?
Block (1959)
What is Liberation Theology? [3]
Liberation theology is a movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America at the end of the 1960s.
It is strongly committed to the poor and against military dictatorships.
This movement was a great change for the Catholic Church, a conservative institution.
What factors led to Liberation Theology?
Worsening rural poverty and the growth of urban slums.
Human rights abuses following military take-overs.
The increasing support among Catholic priests for an ideology that supported the poor and opposed human rights violations.
In what ways did Liberation Theology try to bring about change? [2]
Establishing support groups called base communities taht helped workers and peasants fight oppression.
Priests helped develop literacy programmes.
What led to the decline of Liberation Theology?
In the 1980s, Pope John Paul II condemned liberation theology, saying it resembled Marxism and that priests should focus on pastoral activities. Since then, the movement has lost its influence.