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nature vs nurtue
dealing with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior
nature
heredity (behavior is genetic, maturation)
nurture
environment (intelliectual structures learned)
maturation
biological growth processes that bring about orderly changes in behavior, thought, or physical growth, relatively unaffected by experience
developmental psychologist
a psychologist who studies the emotional, cognitive, biological, personal, and social changes that occur as an individual matures
continuity vs discontinuity
deal with the question of whether development is gradual, cumulative change from conception to death, or a sequence of distinct stages
continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones (quantitive)
discontinuity
developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change (qualitative)
behaviorist who favor continuity focus on...
quantitative changes in number or amount (height and weight)
vygotsky favored...
continuity
piaget, kohlberg, gilligan, and erikson favor
distinct stages focus on qualitative changes in kind, structure, or organization
what did psychologists theorize about continuity vs discontinuity
that the child and growing adult resolve conflicts or develop different abilities in stages through which everyone passes in the same order and that build upon one another; the growth pattern is discontinuous
quantitive example
numbers
qualitative example
relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something rather than its quantity.
stability vs change
deal with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the life span
stability vs change: followers of freud believed
that personality traits developed in the first five years predict adult personalty . change theorist argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation
stability vs change: developmental psychologists research which characteristics...
are most likely to remain stable and consistent and which are likely to be more flexible and subject to change
stability
when something stays mostly the same over time (psychoanalysis, personality traits remain)
change
to make or become different (change theroists, personality change)
developmental psychologists
conduct experiments, naturalistic observations, correlational studies, and case studies that enable them to assess change over time
what are the four basic research designs developmental psychologists use
longitudinal, cross sectional, cohort sequential, and retrospective
What is a longitudinal study?
A study that follows the same group of people over a period from months to many years.
What is the purpose of a longitudinal study?
To evaluate changes in individuals over time.
What is an example of a longitudinal study?
Lewis Terman began studying a group of highly intelligent children.
What important information did Lewis Terman's longitudinal study provide?
It provided important information about changes in intellectual functioning across the life span.
what is some cons of longitudinal studies
can be extremely costly to conduct, take a long time to produce results, and typically lose participants over time
what happens if someone drops out of a cross sectional study
results of the study may not be generalizable
cross sectional studies pros
cost less, do not lose participants, and produce results quickly
cross sectional study
researchers assess developmental changes with respect to a particular factor by evaluating different age groups of people at the same time
example of cross sectional study
to study life span changes in mathematical skills, psychologists could give the same math tests to groups of 15-, 25-, 35-, 45-, 55-, 65-. and 75 year olds at the same time
cross sectional studies can be invalid if
cohort is significantly different in their experiences from other age groups -> results in the cohort effect
cohort
group of people in one age group
cohort effect
differences in the experiences of each age group as a result of growing up in different historical times
cohort sequential studies
cross sectional groups are assessed at least two times over a span of months or years, rather than just once
results from one cohort are compared with other
cohorts at the same age to evaluate their similarity; differences indicate a cohort effect
retrospective studies
are case studies that investigate development in one person at a time
how does a retrospective study work
a researcher interviews an individual at the older end of the age span of interest (conducts changes that have occured in the subjects life through the subject's self reports in interviews and examination of available data)
why are retrospective studies not always correct
because memory is not always accurate and they may not be generalizable to a larger population
what does physical development focus on
maturation and critical periods
critical period
is a time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times
prenatal development begins with
fertilization and ends with birth
zygote
a fertilized ovum with the genetic instructions for a new individual normall contained in 46 chromosomes
ovum
egg
What happens to the zygote during the first 2 weeks following conception?
The zygote divides repeatedly.
What is formed by the zygote after it divides during the first 2 weeks?
A hollow ball of cells.
What does the hollow ball of cells do after forming?
It buries itself in the wall of the uterus.
What type of cell mass is formed after the hollow ball of cells?
A three-layered inner cell mass surrounded by outer cells.
What are the outer cells of the three-layered inner cell mass attached to?
The uterine lining.
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
During the embryonic period
organs start to develop as a result of differentiation and specilzation of cells, and the piacenta, umbilical cord
by the eighth week,
the embryo has ahead with partially formed eyes, limbs, and a skeleton composed of cartilage
fetus
the developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception to birth
what happens during the fetal period
the organ systems begin to interact, bone replaces cartilage in the skeleton, and sex organs and sense organs become more refined
what can birth defects result from
a malfunctioning gene or an environmental stimulus
what happens if a pregnant woman takes in posionous chemicals or gets infected with a virus
developmental errors can result in birth defects that are not hereditary
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
when do most birth defects develop
embryonic period and are usually more severe than problems that develop later
when is the critical period for eyes, ears, legs, and the heart
the first 3 months (first trimester) of pregnancy
the most severe brain damage happens during the
embryonic and early fetal periods
fetal alcohol syndrome
a cluster of abnormalities that occurs in babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy
what are some characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome in children
low intelligence, a small head with flat face, misshapen eyes, a flat nose, and think upper lip
the most severe intellectual disability results from
exposure of the embryo/fetus during the early months of pregnancy
what is the leading cause of intellectual developmental disorder in the united states
FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome)
cigarette smoking during pregnancy is associated with
miscarriage, still birth, premature delivery, and low birth weight
can malnutrition cause birth defects
yes
neonates
new born babies
at birth, neonates are equipped with basic reflexes that increase
their chances of survival
rotting
the neonates response of turning his or her head when touched on the cheeck and then trying to put the stimulus into his or her mouth
sucking
the automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth
swallowing
a contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass into the esophagus without the neonate choking
the lack of some reflexes in a neonate can indicate possible brain
damage to neuropsychologists
grasping reflex
an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand
moro or startle reflex
in which a loud noise or sudden drop causes the neonate to automatically arch his or her back, fling his/her limbs out, quickly retract them
as the infant matures,
developing voluntary control over behaviors, many of the reflexes disappear
neonates adaptive behavior is not
limited to reflexes; they also show behaviors that facilitate social interactions
shortly after birth, infants respond to the
human face, voice, and touch
infants show a preference
for the voice and odor of their mothers
how do psychologists know this information if babies cant talk?
psychologists depend on gazes, sucking, and head turning measured by sophisticated computerized equipment in response to changes in stimuli to reveal abilites of infants
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus
What happens to brain development during the first two years of an infant's life?
Brain development proceeds rapidly.
How many brain cells are produced during the first two years of an infant's life?
20 billion brain cells are produced.
What happens to dendrites in the first two years of an infant's life?
Dendrites proliferate in neural networks, especially in the cerebellum.
How do body proportions change during the first two years of an infant's life?
Body proportions change significantly.
when is the next growth spurt after infants
in adolescence (a dramatic increase in production of sex hormones)
puberty
sexual maturation, marked by the onset of the ability to reproduce
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive features associated with sexual maturity (hip and breast development in females, male voices deepening)
when do girls begin their growth spurt
about 2 years before their first menstrual period
menarche
the first menstrual period
when do boys start their growth spurt
about 2 years later than girls but about 2 years before ejaculation of semen with viable sperm
during adolescence, changes in the brain include
selective pruning of unused dendrites with further development of the emotional limbic system, followed by frontal lobe maturation
maturation of the prefrontal/frontal cortex involved in
judgement and decision making continues into early adulthood
the disconnect between the physical maturation and the mental maturation can lead to
challenges with risky behavior as the prefrontal cortex has not had adequate time to develop
by our mid 20s
our physical capabilities peak, followed by first almost imperceptible, then accelerating, decline
according to evolutionary psychologists,
peaking at a time when both males and females can provide for their children maximizes chances of survival for our species
menopause
cessaiton of the ability to reproduce - is accompanied by a decrease in production of female sex hormones
usually when adults age , the lenses of their
eyes thicken, letting less light reach the retina and worsening vision for near objects
heart disease, stroke, cancer, alzheinmers, are often signs of
terminal diseases of old age
med die about
4 years earlier then women
theories of cognitive development look at
how our patterns of thinking, reasoning, remembering, and problem solving change as we grow
