Unit 3: Development and Learning

What are the three major themes in developmental psychology?

• Nature vs. Nurture: Examines the role of genetics and environment in shaping traits.

• Stability vs. Change: Explores whether personality remains consistent or changes over time.

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Considers if development is gradual or occurs in distinct stages.

What are the two main research methods used in developmental psychology?

1. Longitudinal Research: Follows the same group over a long period to track individual development but is time-consuming and costly.

2. Cross-Sectional Research: Compares different age groups at one point in time, quicker and less costly but affected by the cohort effect.

What is the cohort effect in cross-sectional research?

Differences between age groups may reflect unique generational experiences rather than true developmental differences.

What is prenatal development, and what factors can influence it?

Prenatal development occurs from conception to birth. Influencing factors include:

• Teratogens: Harmful substances like alcohol or drugs.

• Maternal Illness: Can lead to developmental delays.

• Hormonal Imbalances: Affect development.

• Environmental Toxins: Lead exposure or poor nutrition.

What are fine and gross motor skills?

• Fine Motor Skills: Small muscle coordination, e.g., writing, buttoning clothes.

• Gross Motor Skills: Large muscle movements, e.g., crawling, jumping.

What are infant reflexes, and why are they important?

• Rooting Reflex: Baby turns their head and opens their mouth when their cheek is stroked, aiding in feeding.

• Sucking Reflex: Baby sucks on objects touching their mouth, ensuring nourishment.

What is the visual cliff experiment, and what does it demonstrate?

A test of infant depth perception where babies hesitate to crawl over an apparent "cliff." It shows depth perception develops by 6–12 months and has a critical period for proper development.

What are critical periods, and how do they relate to language development?

Critical periods are specific time frames for developing skills like language. Lack of exposure during this time can impair language acquisition permanently.

What is imprinting, and which species is it commonly associated with?

Imprinting is when young animals fixate on the first moving object they see (often a parent). It is common in ducks for safety and survival.

What physical milestones are associated with adolescence?

• Puberty: Biological changes leading to reproductive maturity.

• Growth Spurts: Rapid increases in height and weight.

• Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

What happens during menopause and andropause?

• Menopause (women): End of menstrual cycles and reproductive capacity, usually in late 40s–50s.

• Andropause (men): Gradual decline in testosterone and reproductive ability.

What is the "juice experiment" an example of in Piaget's theory?

Understanding conservation. A child might think a taller glass has more juice, even if both glasses hold the same amount.

What is reversibility?

The ability to understand that objects can change and return to their original form (e.g., a smushed ball of Play-Doh can be reshaped).

What is animism?

Belief that inanimate objects have feelings (e.g., a child feeding a stuffed animal as if it were alive).

What is egocentrism in children?

A child's inability to understand perspectives other than their own (e.g., blocking the TV without realizing it affects others).

What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

Tasks a child can't do alone but can accomplish with help, often through scaffolding.

What is scaffolding?

• Guidance provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a child complete tasks.

What is crystallized intelligence?

Accumulated knowledge and skills, which generally increase with age.

What is fluid intelligence?

The ability to reason quickly and solve new problems, which peaks in early adulthood and declines with age.

What is dementia, and what is the most common form?

• A category of brain diseases causing gradual cognitive decline; the most common form is Alzheimer’s disease.

What are the stages of language development in children?

Cooing (6-8 weeks): Experimenting with sounds.
- Babbling (4-6 months): Combining vowels and consonants.
- One-word stage (~1 year): Single words represent entire thoughts.
- Telegraphic speech (18-24 months): Combining 2-3 words into phrases.

What is overgeneralization in language development?

• Applying grammar rules too broadly (e.g., "runned" instead of "ran").

What are the five systems in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

- Microsystem: Immediate environment (e.g., family, school).
- Mesosystem: Interconnections within the microsystem (e.g., parents talking to teachers).
- Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., a parent’s workplace stress).
- Macrosystem: Cultural and societal context (e.g., laws, values).
- Chronosystem: Changes over time (e.g., major life events).

How does the mesosystem influence a child?

• Through interactions between elements of their microsystem, such as communication between parents and teachers.

What does Erikson's stage theory focus on?

Balancing personal needs with society's expectations to resolve conflicts for healthy development.

What is the conflict in Erikson's first stage of development (birth to 1 year)?

Trust vs. mistrust.

What results from consistently meeting a baby's basic needs in the trust vs. mistrust stage?

Development of trust.

What is the key conflict in Erikson's stage for ages 1-3?

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt.

How does successful independence in toddlers, like potty training, influence development?

It fosters autonomy.

What is Erikson's stage for children aged 3-6?

Initiative vs. guilt.

What fosters initiative in children aged 3-6?

Encouragement of their activities and interactions.

What is the main conflict for children aged 6-12 in Erikson's theory?

Industry vs. inferiority.

What contributes to a sense of competence in children aged 6-12?

Mastering new skills in school.

What is the focus of Erikson's stage for adolescents (ages 12-18)?

Identity vs. role confusion.

What results from successfully forming a personal identity during adolescence?

A solid sense of self and direction.

What is the primary task for young adults (ages 18-40) in Erikson's theory?

Intimacy vs. isolation.

How is generativity achieved in middle adulthood (ages 40-65)?

By contributing to society and nurturing the next generation.

What is the conflict in late adulthood (ages 65+)?

Integrity vs. despair.

What promotes integrity in late adulthood?

Feeling fulfilled and satisfied with one's life.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Shaping is the process where successive approximations toward a target behavior are reinforced.

What is instinctive drift?

Instinctive drift occurs when an animal's innate behaviors interfere with conditioned responses.

What is an example of instinctive drift?

A Corgi nipping at ankles due to its herding instinct, despite reinforcement to stop.

What is superstitious behavior?

Superstitious behavior occurs when an individual mistakenly believes a specific action is linked to an outcome, despite no actual connection.

What is an example of superstitious behavior?

Wearing a specific shirt to every exam because you think it brings good luck.

What is learned helplessness?

Learned helplessness occurs when an individual feels helpless and passive in an unpleasant situation, believing they have no control over the outcome.

How does learned helplessness develop?

It often develops after repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.

What is continuous reinforcement?

Continuous reinforcement is when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

What is a drawback of continuous reinforcement?

It is more prone to extinction.

What is partial reinforcement?

Partial reinforcement is when a behavior is only reinforced some of the time.

What is a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?

Behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.

What is an example of a fixed ratio schedule?

Getting extra credit every five times you participate in class.

What is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

What is a fixed interval reinforcement schedule?

The first response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed.

What is an example of a fixed interval schedule?

Reviewing for a quiz only the day before it happens.

What is a variable interval reinforcement schedule?

The first response is reinforced after varying time intervals.

What is an example of a variable interval schedule?

Pop quizzes in class.

Which reinforcement schedule is most resistant to extinction?

Variable ratio schedule.

What is the social cognitive theory?

A theory by Albert Bandura stating that we learn behaviors by observing and imitating others.

What is vicarious conditioning?

Learning by observing the consequences of others' behaviors.

What was Bandura's Bobo doll experiment?

A study where children imitated aggressive or non-aggressive behavior they observed in adults.

What are mirror neurons?

Brain cells that fire both when we perform an action and when we observe someone else performing it.

What are the cognitive tasks required for observational learning?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

What is insight learning?

A sudden realization or "aha" moment in solving a problem.

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated.

What did Edward Tolman's rat maze experiment demonstrate?

Rats can form cognitive maps and learn without direct reinforcement.

What did Edward Tolman’s rat maze experiment demonstrate?

Tolman’s experiment showed latent learning, where rats explored a maze without reinforcement but later navigated it efficiently when a food reward was introduced. This demonstrated the formation of cognitive maps, or mental representations of their environment.

What are Jean Piaget’s main contributions to psychology?

ean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development, outlining how children progress through four stages:

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops.

2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking grows, but egocentrism and lack of logical reasoning persist.

3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops for concrete tasks; understanding of conservation forms.

4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges.