IVC Political Science Exam Cram

Political Science

The systematic study of government and politics.

Pluralism

A theory of American politics that holds that society’s interests are substantially represented through the activities of groups and that, in most policy decisions, government is chiefly responsive to the interest group most directly affected by the policy.

Democracy

A form of government in which the people govern directly or through elected representatives.

Concurrent powers

powers exercised over the same policy areas between national and state

Implied powers

powers that are not listed in the Constitution but that are related to the exercise of the listed powers.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution that are given to Congress.

American Political Culture

liberty, equality, self-government, and individualism; serves as Americans’ common bond

Republic

A government where elected representatives make decisions, emphasizing deliberation and limiting majority power to protect individual liberties.

Checks and balances

An elaborate system established by the U.S. Constitution to control government power, dividing authority among branches (e.g., executive, legislative, judicial) and methods of selecting national officers.

Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation were the first U.S. government, giving most power to the states and creating a weak national government because Americans feared strong centralized power after British rule.

Devolution

The passing down of authority from the national government to the state and local governments.

McCulloch v. Maryland

The Supreme Court ruled that Congress has implied powers (like creating a national bank) and that states cannot tax or interfere with the federal government because federal law is supreme.

Selective Incorperation

The process by which certain rights (for example, freedom of speech) contained in the Bill of Rights become applicable through the Fourteenth Amendment to actions by the state governments.

Freedom of Religion

government cannot establish a religion or prevent people from practicing their religion.

Exclusionary Rule

The legal principle that government is prohibited from using in trials evidence that was obtained by unconstitutional means (for example, illegal search and seizure).

Civil Rights v. Civil Liberties

Civil liberties: Protect individual freedoms from government interference (e.g., free speech).

Civil rights: Ensure equal treatment and protect against discrimination.

Affirmative Action

Programs that help women, minorities, and other disadvantaged groups receive equal opportunities in jobs, education, and other areas

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

Race can be considered in college admissions, but strict racial quotas are unconstitutional.

Plessy v. Ferguson

It allowed racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, even though facilities were often unequal.

Primary Socializing Agents

Primary agents: Family—shape early political beliefs and values

Secondary Socializing Agents

Secondary agents: Friends, school, media, work, and leaders—influence political views later in life.

Public opinion polls

A survey of a sample of people used to estimate the opinions of the entire population.

Random Sampling

Selecting individuals randomly from a population so the sample represents the larger group and reduces bias.

Midterm elections

Congressional elections held halfway between presidential elections.

Proposals to increase voter turnout

By making registration and voting easier, such as allowing same-day registration and reducing barriers to participation.

Voter registration

The process of getting one’s name on the official list of eligible voters before being allowed to vote.

Party Polarization

The growing divide between political parties on major issues, making it harder for them to cooperate across party lines.

Issues of Democracy

Higher taxes on the rich/corporations, expanding social welfare programs, defending civil/minority rights, abortion access, LGBTQ+ rights, and environmental protection. Less supportive of military action.

Caucus

A local, in-person gathering where registered party members meet to discuss candidates and vote publicly by grouping together in designated areas of a room, rather than casting a secret ballot.

Issues of Republican

Sweeping tax cuts, deregulation, high tariffs, cutting federal programs, opposing liberal social policies (e.g., abortion access), and prioritizing military strength.

Interest Groups

Organizations that actively seek to influence public policy. (See also citizens’ [noneconomic] groups; economic groups.)

Function of interest groups

Influence public policy, represent shared interests, and encourage political participation.

Reasons to join interest groups

To gain benefits, support causes, and influence government decisions.

Super PACs

Election committees that are unrestricted in their fundraising and spending as long as they do not coordinate their campaign efforts with that of a candidate.

Agenda Setting

The power of the media through news coverage to focus the public’s attention and concern on particular events, problems, issues, personalities, and so on.

Echo chambers

Refers to media outlets where audience members are exposed to messages that support what they already believe.

Watergate Scandal

A 1970s scandal where journalists exposed Nixon administration wrongdoing, leading to Nixon’s resignation and strengthening the media’s watchdog role.

Gerrymandering

The process by which the party in power draws election district boundaries in a way that enhances the reelection prospects of its candidates.

House vs Senate incumbents

House incumbents: Benefit from gerrymandering/redistricting and safer districts; usually face weaker challengers.

Senate incumbents: Do not benefit from redistricting; face stronger statewide challengers (like governors or attorneys general).

Impeachment of the President

The House of Representatives’ power to formally charge the president, vice president, or other federal officials with treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

Pork-barrel spending

Government-funded projects that benefit a specific state or district, such as building a hospital, highway, or research center, often used by members of Congress to gain support from constituents.

Presidential veto

The power of the president to veto an act of Congress. A veto can only be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the House and Senate.

Expressed powers of president

Commander in chief, chief diplomat, chief executive, and chief legislator (military, foreign policy, enforcing laws, and making/vetoing laws).

Powers of vice president

President of the Senate and tie-breaking vote; other duties depend on the president.

Electoral College

Electors who cast the states’ electoral votes for the president of the United States.

Judicial Review

Courts decide constitutionality of government actions.

Judicial Restraint

Judges follow precedent and avoid overturning laws.

Judicial Activism

Courts create broader interpretations and may overturn policies/laws.

Tenure for federal judges

Life tenure → protects judges from political pressure and keeps the judiciary independent.

Fiscal policy

Government’s use of taxing and spending to manage the economy

Inflation

A general increase in the average level of prices of goods and services.

Unemployment insurance

Provides temporary income to unemployed workers; funded by employer taxes.

Medicaid

Health insurance program for low-income individuals; created in 1965.

Medicare

National health insurance for the elderly and disabled; created in 1965.

Affordable Care Act (ACA, Obamacare)

2010 law that expanded health insurance access and banned coverage denials

Recall of Gavin Newsom

2021 recall attempt against Gov. Gavin Newsom over his liberal policies and COVID-19 restrictions; voters rejected the recall by nearly 2–1.

California Court Structure

Amending the Constitution

California’s Constitution is easier to amend (500+ times); U.S. Constitution requires ¾ of states for ratification.

FRQ Prompt #1: From the lecture on political parties, explain four reasons why third parties in the United States have been so weak historically.

Third parties struggle because the winner-take-all system makes it difficult to win elections. They face challenges getting on ballots, raising money, and gaining media attention. As a result, most political offices are controlled by Democrats and Republicans.

FRQ Prompt #2: From Patterson, identify and explain five functions of the media

• Signaling function: Media informs people about important events and issues.

• Common-carrier function: Media allows leaders to communicate with the public.

• Watchdog function: Media investigates and exposes government wrongdoing.

• Partisanship function: Media promotes certain political views or parties.

• Entertainment function: Media attracts audiences through entertaining content.

FRQ Prompt #3: From Patterson, identify and explain five pitfalls of incumbency or Senate and House incumbents

Disruptive issues – Voters may blame incumbents for unpopular issues.

Misconduct – Scandals can hurt reelection chances.

Low midterm turnout – Fewer voters can weaken the president’s party.

Primary challengers – Incumbents can lose to rivals from their own party.

Strong challengers/funding – Opponents with money and support can defeat incumbents.

FRQ Prompt #5: Define the Electoral College and explain the unit rule. From the lecture, what are the two arguments for and two arguments against the Electoral College?

Electoral College: System where electors vote for president; 270 of 538 votes needed to win.

Unit Rule: State winner gets all electoral votes (except Maine/Nebraska).

FOR:

• Constitutional — Framers created it.

• Protects small states — Prevents only large states from deciding elections.

AGAINST:

• Ignores popular vote — A candidate can win without the most votes.

• Favors swing states — Candidates focus on battleground states.