Psych Exam 1

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

an unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

correlational research

tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables

dependent variable

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimental research

tests a hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

hypothesis

(plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

illusory correlation

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

inter-rater reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

test-retest reliability

the degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remain consistent over multiple administrations

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

verifiability

an experiment must be replicable by another researcher

agonist

a drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

antagonist

a drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

auditory cortex

a strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

autonomic nervous system

controls our internal organs and glands

axon

a major extension from the neuronʼs soma, which allows electrical signals to be passed from one neuron to another

axon terminals (terminal buttons)

the ends of a neuronʼs axon where synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters send chemical messages to the next neuron

biological perspective

The view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

brain

a complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia, it provides the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors

Brocaʼs area

a region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production. is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production.

central nervous system CNS

the brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

The hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory. If damaged, trouble walking or keeping balance, shaky hands or slow, jerky movements, slurred or slowed speech, involuntary eye movement, difficulty with tasks that require hand control (writing or zipping a jacket)

cerebral cortex

the surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

contralateral

relating to the opposite side of the body; in the brain, this refers to how the left hemisphere controls activity on the right side of the body, and vice versa

corpus callosum

a thick band of neural fibers connecting the brainʼs two hemispheres

dendrites

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

depolarization

when a cellʼs charge becomes positive, or less negative

fight or flight response

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

forebrain

the largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

frontal lobe

the part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex

glial cell

a nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport

hindbrain

division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. coordinates functions that are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness

hippocampus

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory. responsible for forming new memories, particularly long-term and episodic (event-based) ones, as well as learning and spatial navigation. It helps convert short-term experiences into long-term memories and plays a role in connecting memories with emotions.  

hypothalamus

forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system. maintains your body's stable state, or homeostasis, by regulating basic functions such as body temperature, hunger, thirst, mood, and sleep. It achieves this by acting as the main link between the nervous and endocrine systems, managing hormones and controlling the pituitary gland

lateralization

the concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

limbic system

the collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory

medulla

hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

midbrain

division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation

motor cortex

a strip of the cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

myelin sheath

a fatty substance that insulates axons which increases the speed at which the signal travels

neuron

cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system; the central building blocks of the nervous system

neuroplasticity

the ability of the nervous system to change and adapt

parasympathetic nervous system

associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body."rest & digest" - works in balance with the sympathetic division

parietal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body

pituitary gland

secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system. at the base of the brain

pons

hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep.in the brain, as part of the brainstem

prefrontal cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning. damage causes deficits in planning, judgment, impulse control, and emotional regulation, leading to personality changes, difficulty with social situations, poor decision-making, and trouble focusing or organizing tasks

receptors

proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach—they vary in shape, with different shapes “matchingˮ different neurotransmitters

resting potential

the state of readiness of a neuron membraneʼs potential between signals

reuptake

when neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft drift away or are broken down into inactive fragments, or reabsorbed back into the neuron following action potential

soma

the cell body of a neuron

somatic nervous system

relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS

somatosensory cortex

essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

sympathetic nervous system

involved in stress-related activities and functions

synaptic vesicles

small, membrane-bound sacs at housed at axon terminals in neurons, which hold and transport neurotransmitters; storage site for neurotransmitters

synaptic cleft (synapse)

small gap between two neurons where communication occurs

temporal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex

thalamus

sensory relay station for the brain

Wernickeʼs area

part of the brain that is important for speech comprehension. in the left temporal lobe

absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time

afterimage

continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus

amplitude

height of a wave

binocular cue

cue that relies on the use of both eyes

binocular disparity

slightly different view of the world that each eye receives

bottom-up processing

system in which perceptions are built from sensory input. Examples include recognizing unfamiliar objects, assembling a jigsaw puzzle without a reference image by matching colors and shapes, or reacting to a sudden pain sensation, like stubbing your toe, by first detecting the pain signals before analyzing the situation

cone

specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color

cornea

transparent covering over the eye

depth perception

ability to perceive depth

fovea

small indentation in the retina that contains cones

Gestalt psychology

field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

inattentional blindness

failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention

iris

colored portion of the eye

lens

curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye

monocular cue

cue that requires only one eye

multimodal perception

the effects that concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality has on the perception of events and objects in the world

multimodal phenomena

effects that concern the binding of inputs from multiple sensory modalities

opponent-process theory of color perception

color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green

optic nerve

carries visual information from the retina to the brain

perception

way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced