Liberalism - Combined Set

Individualism - liberalist views on it

Liberalism views individuals as separate, distinct and self-differentiated beings with their own unique views, beliefs and interests.

What are contingencies?

Attributes and characteristics that come about due to circumstance through no choice of your own.

E.g. class, race, culture

What remains when contingencies are stripped away?

Once the contingencies of social, cultural and class markers of identity are deconstructed, the core of what remains is an autonomous individual with the capacity to make rational decisions.

Rationalism - definition

The essence of what it means to be human is an individual’s ability to have control over the choices that you make.

Dynamic between society/state and the individual

Society and the state owes the individual, with its purpose being to allow the individual to flourish.

What came first, society or the individual?

The individual is both conceptually and ontologically prior to society and the state. And so there’s an emphasis on the unfettered expression of individualism.

Ontologically prior - meaning

The very existence of the individual predates any society or government, these are artificial and circumstantial constructs which have evolved from the individual.

Primacy of the individual - meaning

The individual is of supreme importance over any group or collective body.

The individual is sovereign over the mind, body and soul.

To what extent do liberals support free speech?

The liberal state is there to protect the right to choose and express oneself, rather than the choice made.

How does liberalism play on some religious ideas despite its secular nature?

It gives religious ideas a secular articulation.

There’s no objective moral code without religion.

They also believe that the individual is sovereign rather than God.

What’s the central idea of liberalism?

The individual is the starting point for a liberal ideology, so any state or economy must address the enhancement of individual interests.

Freedom: Intrinsic or instrumental in value?

Intrinsic - freedom is valuable in and of itself

Instrumental - freedom is valuable as it acts as a stepping stone for more rights

Why does individual freedom not require justification?

Because its the natural condition of humankind, it is limitations on freedom that require justification instead.

Why does liberalists views that individuals require legal protection?

Individuals are bearers of rights, either natural or human rights, and since we are irreducibly unique and valuable in our own right, humans require protection.

What is an example of legal protection of individuals that is required?

Legally enforceable rights, with constitutionalism and consent crucial to liberalism.

What is the classical liberal view on the nature of society?

It is an artificial construct designed to further the interests of individuals

What type of individualism produces this view of society?

Atomistic or egoistic individualism

What does it mean that society has no independent reality?

It wouldn’t exist without the individual - it’s merely a collection of autonomous and self sufficient individuals who engage in mutually beneficial transactions without any obligations to society

How does society potentially suppress individuality?

As a collective and potentially coercive force, society has the tendency to limit the full achievement of individual potential

How does society limit individualism?

Through its institutions, customs and expectations

What are the two parts to tyranny of the majority?

1. The majority making laws that are imposed against minorities

2. The culturally coercive pressure to conform to society’s dominant values

Why is it key for society and the state to remain separate?

Otherwise the state has the potential to become totalitarian by eliminating the distinction between the private domain of civil society and public domain of the state

What is a precondition for freedom, what must society be independent of?

An autonomous civil society independent of the coercive potential of the state is a prerequisite for the proper and effective excercise of freedom

What is the justification behind the classical liberal view of negative freedom and minimal state intervention?

Since individuals possess different talents abilities and skills, any form of deliberate social engineering to artificially create equal social and economic outcomes is not only undesirable but necessitates the expansion of state power that represents a threat to individual liberty.

Equality of opportunity vs outcome - what do liberals believe in?

They believe in creating equality of opportunity. The distribution of socioeconomic status will be unequal but nevertheless fair.

How can inequality be fair?

As the processes leading to inequalities are underpinned by meritocracy

However modern vs classical liberals disagree on the extent to which this is true

How is liberalism different to democracy?

Liberalism is a theory of state, while democracy is a theory of government

How is the government different to the state?

A government is how the state is managed.

Why do liberals argue that we need a state?

As the preservation of liberty requires legal protection and enforcement, necessitating the establishment of the state

How are liberties threatened by others?

Each individual is potentially vulnerable to having their liberties abused, yet is equally a danger to the abuse of another’s liberties

What did John Locke say about the importance of law?

Whew there is no law there is no freedom.

What’s a social contract?

Where the state is created by the individual in order to protect individual liberties

What is the state’s authority derived from?

The authority of the state is derived from individuals needing legal protection

What happens if the state doesn’t protect liberties?

It loses its legitimacy, therefore citizens aren’t under an unconditional political obligation to obey the state irrespective of laws

How was Thomas Paine critical of government?

Government even in its best state, is a necessary evil; in its worst state, it’s an intolerable one

What do liberals fear about individuals gaining power?

They have a natural fear of power since egoistic individuals are likely to become corrupted by power and use it selfishly.

How do liberals view the state in light of their fear of power

As a necessary evil, and they believe it the state should be minimal

What is the paradox of power?

State power constitutes a threat to liberty yet state power is also necessary to protect liberty

How is the paradox of power resolved?

- Through a system that continually fragments diffuses and checks the exercise of power

- Belief in constitutionalism and the separation of power

What single thing is the most effective check on power?

Power itself

How does liberalism make assumptions in its economic thought?

That humans are inherently individualistic and rational

How do liberals view the economy and its relationship with the state

They view it as a series of interrelated markets that should be free from state control.

How do liberals believe freedom is essential to the economy

They believe that individuals and businesses should be free to buy and sell as they please, dictated by consumer demand

What is the basis of capitalism?

Mutually beneficial voluntary economic transactions chosen by self interest.

This facilitates economic growth, efficiency of maximalisation of profit.

Why do liberals believe capitalism is successful?

Due to its compatibility with human nature, i.e. competitive, self interested, etc.

What is a common goal of both liberalism and democracy?

Limiting the coercive potential of the state.

As that violates liberty as well as legitimate representation.

How does democracy limit the coercive potential of the state?

Decentralisation of power through representation, accountability and participation.

It encourages multiple centres of power in a pluralistic framework.

How does liberalism limit the coercive potential of the state?

Through advocacy for the fragmentation and diffusion/ separation of powers as the most effective check on power is power itself.

How is the relationship between democracy and liberty paradoxical?

They are both complementary and contradictory

What are the respective assumptions of democracy and liberalism?

Democracy: Collectivist set of assumptions

Liberalism: rooted in individualistic assumptions

What is the underlying point of tension between democracy and liberalism?

The trade-off between the value of individual liberty relative to the democratic notion of the common good.

What is legalistic tyranny of the majority?

The legislature could legally, legitimately and democratically sanction laws that violate the rights of minorities.

What’s cultural tyranny of the majority?

Democracy, given its populistic leanings, creates a potentially coercive pressure towards social conformity and cultural standardisation that stifles the impulsive nature of liber

How does democracy develop human beings and their liberty?

1. Develops intellectual virtue and skills of argument and logical reasoning

2. As your decisions affect others, it develops a moral virtue and consideration of your own actions

3. Develops an aesthetic virtue, as you must choose your priorities and assign values various issues and trade offs.

4. Forces empathy, developing a spiritual virtue

What is negative liberty also known as

Egotistical individualism

What is egotistical individualism?

Individuals aim to satisfy their own rational interests.

It is highly atomistic, with no distinction between the higher and lower self

What’s positive liberty also known as

Developmental individualism

What’s developmental individualism

Humans have their individual interests but are located within a broader social order of economic and social interdependence

It accepts the distinction between the higher and lower self

What type of liberty do the two main branches of liberalism associate with?

Negative (atomistic): Classical

Positive (developmental): Modern

What is a quote from Jean-Jacques Rousseau that supports positive liberty?

‘Forced to be free’

What is the view on the role of the state from a negative liberty perspective?

They believe in the absence of external restrictions, with an attempt to protect autonomous civil society from state intrusions.

The state is a threat as it represents a concentration of coercive potential, so must be rolled back

Positive liberty view on the state

Believe in self mastery or realisation, with freedom being the development of human capacities and the achievement of autonomy.

Freedom is constrained by social disadvantages that prevent individuals from realising their true potential, so state should widen opportunities - enabling state

How do both types of liberty have similar views on human nature?

Both committed to the primacy of the individual, but they have different assumptions of human nature.

Classical liberal view on human nature

Adopt a form of atomistic individualism in which the extension of choice equates with an enhancement of freedom.

Believe liberty has an intrinsic value, it constitutes an end itself

Modern liberal view on human nature

Liberty is an essential means for self development and mastery, believing in development, individualism.

Liberty assumes an instrumental value, used as a means for growth

Classical view on the economy

Views the ownership of property as essential, alongside life and liberty. - Possessive individualism

They support an unregulated free market economy, as egotistical individualism only functions with competition.

Modern liberal view on the economy

Argue that social and economic inequalities created by capitalism can limit opportunities, compromising their liberty and meritocracy.

They support a qualified form of welfare capitalism, with a mixed economy and progressive taxation.

Points of agreement between modern and classical

• Promotion of liberty

• Limit the coercive potential of the state through fragmenting and diffusing power

• Mutual tolerance and respect

• A codified constitution with entrenched Bill of Rights

• Inter. co-op in the form of inter-governmentalism (UN etc.)

Classical: A Critique of the absolute rule of monarchy and inherited privalege.

VS..

Modern: A response to social + economic inequalities stemming from unregulated capitalism.

Modern: Believes in the importance of reconciling individual liberty with issues of social justice + welfare

VS…

Classical: Emphasis on individual liberty as the supreme ideal.

Classical: Freedom defined in terms of negative liberty

VS…

Modern: Freedom defined in terms of negative and positive liberty.

Modern: The state is an important instrument to create social + economic opportunities

Vs..

Classical: The state is a necessary evil to maintain law and order.

Classical: Favours a free-market, Laissez-Faire economy.

VS…

Modern: Supports regulation for equity and fairness, with a bias toward free market capitalism.

John Locke - brief info

Classical liberal thinker of the 17th Century, with his famous text being ‘Two Treaties of Government’

What assumptions do both Locke and Hobbes share about human nature?

Share individualistic assumptions, with the idea of natural rights.

How does Locke derive his understanding of the origins, nature and purpose of government?

Its only by abstracting ourselves into pre-social condition that this can be truly understood.

How does Locke disagree with Hobbes’ idea of human nature?

He thinks of humans as more gregarious and sociable. Not only are humans bestowed by natural rights but also by a rational and intuitive sense of natural law.

How does belief in natural rights lead to a rational conclusion?

As they are in essence bestowed by God, they must be protected and preserved.

Locke’s’ belief in social contract

This is created as part of the rational recognition that natural rights need protection from both individuals and the state.Wh

Locke’s belief in constitutionalism and consent

The relationship is two-way; individuals must obey the laws in exchange for protection of their rights by the government.

Locke’s belief in a limited government

The state’s legitimacy is derived from the consent of the people, who are acting rationally in giving the state some power to protect their life, liberty and estate.

How does Locke believe the government is reliant on consent?

People can remove consent at any point if the social contract is broken, it is conditional.

Therefore govt. is limited based on consent from below.

Locke’s quote about freedom and the law

“Where laws do not exist man has no freedom “

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - Famous writing

A vindication of the rights of women

What was her argument for women’s rights?

Women have equal rational capacity to that of men. Their ability to reason is equally shared, so should have equal rights.

Her response to the belief that women are more emotional

This is an ideological and social construct serving a patriarchal power structure.

Key quote about gender equality:

'“The mind has no gender”B

Belief about education

Both men and women should have equal educational opportunities

Her view on women that internalise patriarchal ideology

Believed they damage their own intellectual, moral and spiritual potential and limit civilisational progress.

How does she use religion in her arguments?

She uses the metaphysical backdrop of God to argue that men and women are equal in the eyes of God and have equal access to spiritutal truths, so should be given equal opportunities to develop their potential.

Why is the belief that intrinsic gender equality a metaphysical concept a point of tension for liberalism

The liberal ideology conceives itself as a secular one.

John Stuart Mill (1806-73) - Famous writing

“On Liberty” - put forward a powerful argument for freedom of expression, action and association

What ideology are these liberties central to?

Liberal democracy

What was Mill’s belief on developmental democracy?

He advanced the idea of developmental democracy believing liberty isn’t a static reality but that it should be protected but also nurtured to develop and grow.

How did Mill believe that liberty should be nurtured to develop?

Through participation in public life, as without this, it would become difficult to develop intellectual and moral excellence

What form of democracy did Mill see as a means of protecting liberty as well as enhancing moral and intellectual capabilities of individuals?

Representative democracy

What did he believe democracy becomes a means for

Cultivation

What was Mill’s view on freedom of speech?

He advocated for absolute freedom of speech on philosophical and practical grounds

Philosophically, Why did he believe it was unjustified to suppress any view?

Since beliefs values and ideas are only provisionally valid it cannot be justified simply because it conflicts with the dominant or conventional view