Utilitarianism- overview

context of act utilitarianism

product of criminal justice system of the 1700: the bloody coode where 220 capital crimes existed . Bentham devised classical utilitarianism aimed to deal with this issue by using this critical theory to devise laws and punishment.

what is Utilitarianism

• normative ethical theory, first systematised by Bentham and developed by Mill.

• It provides a non-religious basis for ethics. Without an afterlife or duties to a God, the goal of ethical action focuses on making human life as good as possible.

what did Bentham say about laws?

: 'every law is an evil for every law is an infraction of liberty'

context of negative utilitarianism

WW2; Popper thought that governments of fascist and totalitarian countries insured their countries utopian existence so he said 'those who promise us paradise on earth never produce anything but a hell.'

context of preference utilitarianism

period of intensive animal farming of 1950’s

Act Utilitarianism

Proposes the morality of an action should be calculated on a case by case basis

looks at the balance of pleasure and pain.

what does “nature has placed us under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure” mean?

it is human nature to find pleasure good. Bentham says we are simply determined for our ultimate goal to be happiness, understood as pleasure minus pain. He claims that even if we pretend to have some other goal, we will still be bound to seeking happiness. He claims this is where the ‘standard of right and wrong’ can be derived.

what is psychological hedonism?

pleasure is our sole and ultimate goal

what is Bentham’s reasoning for the principle of utility

he uses a metaethical justification which states that it is within human nature to seek out pleasure

How does Kantian ethics contradict act utilitarianism

there is no duty to adapt a particular approach as it’s relative

rule utilitarianism

Recognises the fact that moral decision making on a case by case basis can be time consuming and instead morality should be determined on pre calculated rules

instead focuses on the ‘common good’

does Mill agree with Bentham?

entirely

what does Mill say about pleasure

• Pleasure is the only thing we can value for its own sake. Anything else we only value instrumentally, insofar as it leads to pleasure.

what makes a rule in rule utilitarianism good

if it maximises the principle of utility

what is the harm principle

people should be free to do what they want so long as they are not harming others.

what does the harm principle show

Mill’s political liberalism and opposed the religious authoritarianism of Mill’s time. 

Why does Mill believe that rule utilitarianism is appropriate for society?

• Authoritarian rules may have been useful in the more chaotic past when strict rules were necessary to prevent social collapse. But Mill thought we have now reached a more advanced stage of civilisation. Thanks to progress and education, the average person has autonomy.

what is Mills emphasis on freedom?

• Mill thought humans were all individuals with their own needs and wants. Increasing happiness is now about empowering autonomy by giving people more freedom. This will ensure that they act to secure their happiness as best they can. Mill says freedom is “pursuing our own good in our own way”.

when does Mill believe that we should act out of our interest and think generally?

only when our actions affect others

what does rule utilitarianism prevent

the principle of universalizability prevents egoism

how is rule utilitarianism similar to kantian ethics

as it considers what is best for society which overlaps with Kant’s universal law

what are the two types of rule utilitarianism

strong rule utilitarianism and weak rule utilitarianism

why is rule utilitarianism pragmatic

 uses similar experiences to create general rules

why do some people not accept rule utilitarianism

• it accepts rule breaking in cases when more happiness can be produced

  • David B. Lyons points out that this make rule utilitarianism the same as act as it also accepts case by case calculations

ideal utilitarianism

• Developed G.E Moore to develop actions more then simple pleasure

• Claims happiness and pleasure should not be the only ideals equated with good

negative utilitarianism

Developed by Popper which focuses on eradicating pain rather then increasing pleasure

good is synonymous with eradicating pain and suffering- happiness and pleasure are a by-product but not a focus

preference utilitarianism

• Actions that increase greatest number of preferences rather then happiness

• Fulfilment of interests is not the same as promoting pleasure and happiness

strength of preference utilitarianism over classical utilitarianism

chases intellectual pursuits rather then hedonistic indulgences

criticism of Bentham’s ethical naturalism

G.E Moore claims that ethical naturalism is a naturalistic fallacy and what is natural does not equal good

Bentham

founder of utilitarianism

believed human actions should be judged based on their consequences

came up with the principle of utility

what are Bentham’s key ideas of Utilitarianism

1. Hedonistic -> good is synoymous with the promotion of happiness or pleasure

2. Natural-> the way the universe works makes utilitarianism the right ethical theory

3. Mathematical-> moral decision making can be calculated using the hedonic calculus

hedonic calculus

• Intensity

• Duration

• Certainty

• Nearness

• Fecundity

• Purity

• Extent

what are the 4 sources of pleasure and pain according to Bentham

1. Physical sanction - nature the ultimate source of pain and pleasure as we are built in a certain way and the universe operates in accordance to certain laws and certain times things we cause pain or pleasure

2. Political sanction, - rewards and punishments administered by a government or legal system

3. moral sanction - social judgements and reactions of the community

4. religious sanction -

 Courts, communities and even Gods can apply this pain or pleasure to influence behaviour- pleasures and pains from these sources are experienced in present life but from religous sanction may exist in an after life if it exists

why is Utilitarianism a natural ethical theory?

 the way the universe works especially in our experience and how we are ruled by two sovereign masters prove that utilitarianism is the natural ethical theory

what were Mill’s key ideas on Utilitarianism?

• Utilitarianism is pragmatic: Mill says people can precalculated the principle of utility to find answers in ethical issues just like sailors pre-calculate navigation based on astronomy

• Utilitarianism is practical: as people can make rules of thumb and apply it to ethical decision making just like a sailor does

• Utilitarianism is foundational: Mill says that people feel obliged to adopt the wrong things; he argues that the principle of utility is the foundation of all normative theories but over time people attach themselves to the secondary principles. Over time these secondary principles change and no longer produce the best outcome

what is Mill’s opposition to the criticism that Utilitarianism is time consuming

 he mocks this argument by saying the same thing for Christianity and that in order to judge on Christian laws one has to read through the whole of the old and new testament before doing anything. Instead Mill says that Utilitarianism uses experience ' there had been ample time, namely the whole past duration of the human species'

what is multilevel rule utilitarianism

1. Utility maximising rules which generally promote pleasure and prevent pain e.g. help the needy and keep your word

1. If these things come into conflict we go into conflict resolving rules  which requires us to break these rules if it is for the greater good

2. Remainder rule  only used during situations where conflict resolving or utility maximising rules cannot be used is principle of utility and moral agent can act as they wish to produce maximum pleasure and minimum pain

what is the harm prinicple

Mill stated that if an action involved harming another person, it was wrong.

• Applying this harm principle to utilitarianism makes the hedonic calculus more ethical and prevents people from using it in a non-moral way.

what is the hedonic calculus?

method developed by philosopher Jeremy Bentham for quantifying the amount of pleasure and pain that an action will produce

criticism of the hedonic calculus

can be used in a bad way to simply achieve what people want rather than looking at what is actually good for the majority.

Mill rejected the hedonic calculus as he felt it took too long to use it and it could be misused.

pleasure is not quantifiable

what did Singer believe Utilitarianism needed to be?

1. Universalizability

2.  egalitarian, consideration of all interests (including animals)

3.  preferentialism is the proper fulfilment of utilitarianism

why does Singer believe Utilitarianism need Universalizability

• 'from ancient times, philosophers and moralists have expressed the idea that ethical conduct is acceptable from a point of view that is somehow universal' e.g. Living ethically according to the golden rule of 'do unto others as you would have them do unto you.' - gives other interests the same weight

why does Singer believe Utilitarianism needs to be Egalitarian

• Singer emphasises that all interests are equal and no characteristic is important

'basic principle of equality: the principle of equal consideration of interests'

what is Singer’s preferentialism

ethical actions fulfil the most preferences of the beings affected by them whilst also  accounting for the types of preferences as some people have more preferences then others as they have greater capacities -> personhood