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Digestive system
the process by which nutrients become available to the body
Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract)
alimentary canal, continuous/muscular tube that runs through the body, open at both ends
GI tract functions
digest and absorb food
What must occur for food to be absorbed?
food must cross wall of tract to enter internal environment of the body
Accessory digestive organs (3)
teeth, tongue, and gallbladder
Accessory digestive glands (3)
salivary glands, pancreas, and liver
Ducts
connect all accessory organs and glands to the digestive tract and allow their secretion of substances to the tract
Six digestive processes
ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation
Ingestion
taking food into the tract
Propulsion
moving food through the tract
Propulsion steps
swallowing and peristalsis
Swallowing
initiated voluntarily, ends in involuntarily
Peristalsis
involuntary, alternate waves of contraction/relaxation, squeeze contents forward through tract, major means of movement
Mechanical breakdown
physically changes food in preparation for chemical digestion through chewing, mixing, churning, and segmentation
Segmentation
local constrictions of intestine that results in mixing and facilitates absorption
Chemical digestion
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are broken down to chemical building blocks that can be absorbed
Enzymes involved in chemical digestion and where they come from/how they get into the tract
enzymes (bile, salt, mucus + water/electrolytes) produced by exocrine glands and released through neural or hormonal stimulation
Exocrine glands
secrete things though ducts to the outside of the body (i.e. the lumen of the GI tract)
Absorption
movement of molecules from the lumen of the GI tract into either blood or lymph
What molecules are taken in during absorption?
products produced by chemical digestion, water, vitamins, and minterals
Where does almost all absorption occur and how?
the small intestine, molecules must enter cell of organ before being transferred to blood/lymph through passive or active transport
Defecation
elimination of indigestible substances from the body in the form of feces
What three things control digestive activity?
innervation of glands, smooth muscle, or via hormones
How is digestive activity managed through innervation of glands
can activate or inhibit secretion of digestive juices
How is digestive activity managed through innervation of smooth muscle
can activate or inhibit, controls mixing and tract motility
Example of hormones controlling digestive activity
hormones produced and released from the small intestine inhibit the rate of stomach emptying after a fatty meal
Intrinsic control
short reflexes, control is the plexus of nerves within walls of GI tract enteric nervous system; called the gut brain
Extrinsic control
long reflexes, controls exerted from autonomic nervous system in CNS
Parasympathetic effect during extrinsic control
enhance secretory activity and motility
Sympathetic effect during extrinsic control
inhibit digestive activities
Functional anatomy
relating specific structure to specific function
Lips (structure and function)
core of skeletal muscle covered in skin, keep food between teeth when we chew (i.e. mechanical digestion)
Oral cavity
only part of GI tract involved in ingestion, bound by lips/cheeks, palate
Hard palate
bony roof of oral cavity, rigid and rough surface for friction and ease of chewing
Soft palate
muscle that aids in blocking off the nasopharynx during swallowing and sound production
Tongue
muscular organ involved in tasting, breathing, swallowing, and speaking
Phases of deglutition (swallowing)
buccal phase and pharyngeal-esophageal phase
Buccal phase
voluntary; tongue rises against hard palate and contracts, forcing food into oropharynx
Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
involuntary (initially controlled by swallowing center in brain stem); tongue blocks of mouth, soft palate rises to block nasopharynx, larynx rises/epiglottis covers trachea, upper esophageal sphincter relaxes and pharynx/esophageal sphincter contract
Effect of pharynx/esophageal sphincter contraction
esophageal peristalsis, gastro-esophageal (cardiac) sphincter relaxes reflexively to allow food into stomach
When and why does the gastro-esophageal (cardiac) sphincter close?
it closes after food enters to prevent regurgitation
Extrinsic salivary glands
saliva enters into oral cavity by ducts
Examples of extrinsic salivary glands
parotid glands (2), submandibular glands (2), and sublingual glands (2)
Intrinsic salivary glands
scattered throughout oral cavity, secrete a small amount continuously
Examples of intrinsic salivary glands
buccal glands
Saliva
contains water (majority), ions, digestive enzymes, and mucus
Saliva functions (4)
dissolves food so that it can be tasted, moistens food to help in mechanical digestion/bolus formation, begin chemical digestion of starches, and protect from microorganismsW
What type of defenses of saliva have against microorganisms
antibodies, lysozymes, a cyanide compound, and defensins-chemicals that attract WBCs into the mouth
What controls salivary glands (4)?
afferent signals from chemoreceptors, afferent signals from pressoreceptors, sight/smell, sympathetic signals from fight/flight
Example of afferent signal from chemoreceptors for salivary control?
acidic foods/liquids triggering salivary production
Example of afferent signal from pressoreceptors for salivary control?
pressure triggers salvatory nuclei in the brain stem, parasympathetic signals speed up production of serous/enzyme-rich saliva
What happens during sympathetic control to your saliva?
release of mucous like saliva sublingually, strong activation of fight/flight will constrict blood vessels inhibiting production of serous saliva
Teeth function
mechanical digestion of food by chewing, each tooth is modified for specific functions
How do you count teeth?
starting at midline and moving laterally
Types of teeth/number
incisors (2), canine (1), pre-molar (2), molar (3)
How many cusps do pre-molar teeth have?
2
How many cusps do molar teeth have?
4-5
Dental formula
number and relative position of different types of teeth; 2I, 1C, 2PM, 3M (upper/lower)
Deciduous teeth
baby/milk teeth; begin to appear at 6 months, with additional pairs appearing at 1-2 month intervals, fully replaced by 13 years old
First and last teeth to appear
incisors (first) and molars (last)
A complete set of teeth at 2 years old is how many?
20 teeth
Permanent teeth
appear around 6 years old, includes additional sets of molars
A full set of adult teeth (including wisdom teeth) is how many?
32 teeth
Materials in tooth structure (6)
dentin, collagen, pulp, enamel, hydroxyapatites, and cementum
Regions in tooth structure (6)
central pulp cavity, crown, neck, root, periodontal ligament, and root canal
Dentin
bone like material, bulk of tooth; produced throughout lifetime by odontoblasts/laid down rapidly, contain collagen
Pulp
connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves in central pulp cavity, supplies nutrients to tooth and provides sensation
Crown
exposed part above gum (gingiva) line; dentin covered by enamel
Enamel
hardest substance in the body, densely packed hydroxyapatites, lacks collagen (not flexible, can chip easily)
Once a tooth has erupted, no more enamel forms (t/f)
true
Neck
constriction between crown and rootR
Root
part of tooth embedded in jawbone
Cementum
calcified connective tissue
Periodontal ligament
anchors tooth in jawbone in a fibrous joint (gomphosis)
Root canal
part of pulp cavity in root; open at base for vessels and nerves to pass through
Caries (cavities)
demineralization of enamel and dentin by a certain type of anaerobic bacteria
Series of events that leads to caries
plaque that sticks to teeth is fed on by bacteria that produce acids that dissolve calcium salts
Plaque
film of sugars, bacteria, and mouth debris that sticks to teeth, dietary sucrose increases thickness substantially
The mouth pH is slightly acidic/basic?
acidic
Periodontal disease
95% of people over the age of 35, accounts for 90% of tooth loss
Series of events that leads to periodontal disease
plaque accumulates and calcifies causing separation of gums/teeth, infection of gums causes separation between tooth and bony socket, bacteria invades and dissolves bone
Calculus
“stone,” plaque accumulation that calcified, also called tartar
Gingivitis
gum infection that can cause the separation of the tooth and bony socket
How can periodontal disease increase risk for heart disease?
chronic inflammation promotes atherosclerosis and bacteria can enter blood from infected gums causing clot formation
Pharynx structure and function
upper (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium) and lower (stratified squamous epithelium); common passageway for air and food
Esophagus
muscular tube from pharynx to stomach that transports food down via peristalsis
How is peristalsis triggered in the esophagus?
food expanding walls causes muscles to contract
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease)
sphincter into stomach isn’t tight, allowing for acid reflux; can cause esophageal cancer resulting in the stomach being brought into the thoracic cavity
Causes of GERD (4)
overweight, pregnant, overeating, and spicy food
Stomach
muscular sac in superior, left part of abdominal cavity
Functions of the stomach (3)
storage of food, mechanical breakdown, and chemical digestion
Rugae
non-permanent folds that expand to accommodate entering food
Mechanical breakdown in the stomach
food is churned/mixed/broken down, acid causes denaturing
Chemical digestion of the stomach
production of pepsin that digests protein
Small intestine
is the major digestive organ, digestion (mechanical/chemical) is completed and almost all absorption occurs here
Three parts of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Duodenum
c-shaped section that curves around the head of pancreas, receives bile form the gallbladder/liver duct and pancreatic juice from a ductW
What two special features does the small intestine have for digestion/absorption?
length and plicae circulares
How long is the small intestine?
almost 21 feet with a 1 inch diameter
Plicae circulares
permanent folds in the lining that slow down movement of chyme through spiraling (increased surface area and time for absorption)