AP Human Geography Review All Units

backroom operations

Operations that occur behind the scenes in a business or organization.

break-of-bulk point

A location where goods are transferred from one mode of transportation to another.

climate change

Long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place.

commodity dependence

Reliance on the export of primary commodities for economic stability.

comparative advantage

The ability of a country to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country.

complementarity

The relationship between two or more goods that enhances their overall value when used together.

container (shipping container/containerization)

A standardized reusable steel box used for transporting goods.

core

The central region of a country or area that is economically dominant.

Ecumene

The inhabited or habitable portion of the earth.

Site

The physical characteristics of a place.

Situation

The location of a place relative to other places.

Suburbanization

The process of population movement from within cities to the suburbs.

Sprawl

The spread of urban developments on undeveloped land near a city.

Edge Cities

Suburban areas that have developed their own economic and commercial centers.

Exurbs

Areas beyond the suburbs that are typically more rural and less densely populated.

Megacities

Cities with a population of over 10 million people.

Urban Hierarchy

The ranking of cities based on their size and economic functions.

Rank-Size Rule

A principle that states the population of a city is inversely proportional to its rank.

Primate City

The largest city in a country that is more than twice the size of the next largest city.

Gravity Model

A model that predicts the interaction between two places based on their size and distance.

Central Place Theory

A geographical theory that explains the size and distribution of human settlements.

Threshold

The minimum market size needed to support a business.

Range

The maximum distance consumers are willing to travel to purchase a good.

CBD

Central Business District, the commercial and business center of a city.

Bid-Rent Theory

A theory that explains the price and demand for land in relation to its distance from the CBD.

Concentric Zone Theory

A model that describes urban land use in concentric circles.

Sector Model

A model that describes urban land use in sectors radiating out from the CBD.

Multiple Nuclei Model

A model that describes cities as having multiple centers of development.

Galactic City Model

A model that describes a city that has a decentralized structure with multiple nodes.

Squatter Settlements

Informal housing areas where people settle without legal rights to the land.

Zoning Ordinances

Laws that regulate land use and development in specific areas.

Infrastructure

The basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society.

Municipality

A city or town that has corporate status and local government.

Annexation

The process of legally adding land area to a city or municipality.

Unincorporated Areas

Regions not governed by a local municipal corporation.

Smart Growth Policies

Urban planning strategies that promote sustainable and efficient land use.

Greenbelts

Areas of open land around a city where development is restricted.

Urban Infill

The process of developing vacant or under-used parcels within existing urban areas.

New Urban Design

An urban planning movement that promotes walkable neighborhoods.

Mixed-Use Neighborhoods

Areas that combine residential, commercial, and recreational spaces.

Quantitative Data

Data that can be measured and expressed numerically.

Qualitative Data

Data that describes qualities or characteristics and is often non-numerical.

Redlining

The practice of denying services to residents of certain areas based on race or ethnicity.

Blockbusting

The practice of inducing panic selling in a neighborhood to change its racial composition.

Urban Renewal

The process of redeveloping and revitalizing urban areas.

Gentrification

The process of urban renewal that leads to the displacement of lower-income residents.

Urban Heat Island

An urban area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.

Brownfields

Previously developed land that is not currently in use and may be contaminated.

dependency theory

A theory that suggests that resources flow from a periphery of poor states to a core of wealthy states.

economic imperialism

The practice of extending a country's power through economic means.

economy of scale

Cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation.

environmentalism

A social movement aimed at protecting the environment.

European Union

A political and economic union of member states located primarily in Europe.

export processing zone

A designated area in a country where goods can be manufactured and exported with fewer regulations.

free trade zone

An area where goods can be landed, handled, manufactured, and re-exported without intervention.

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

An index measuring gender equality in political and economic participation.

gender gap(s)

Disparities in opportunities, status, and attitudes between men and women.

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

An index measuring gender disparities in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market.

globalization

The process by which businesses develop international influence or operate on an international scale.

gross domestic product (GDP)

The total value of all goods and services produced within a country in a given period.

gross national income (GNI)

The total income earned by a country's residents and businesses, including any income earned abroad.

gross national product (GNP)

The total value of all finished goods and services produced by a country's residents in a given period.

growth pole

A center of economic growth that attracts investment and stimulates economic activity.

Human Development Index (HDI)

An index measuring average achievement in key dimensions of human development.

import quota

A limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country.

income distribution

The way in which a nation's total GDP is distributed amongst its population.

Industrial Revolution

The transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the U.S. during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

industrialization

The development of industries in a country or region on a wide scale.

informal economy

Economic activities that are not regulated by the government.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

An international organization that aims to promote global economic stability and growth.

import substitution

An economic policy that advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production.

least cost theory

A theory that suggests that businesses seek to minimize costs in their operations.

maquiladora

A factory in Mexico that assembles imported materials into finished goods for export.

mass consumption

The large-scale consumption of goods and services by a population.

Mercosur

A South American trade bloc aimed at promoting free trade and economic integration.

microloan

A small loan given to individuals to start or expand a business.

neocolonialism

The practice of using economic, political, and cultural pressures to control or influence countries.

neoliberalism (policy)

A policy model that emphasizes the value of free market competition.

off-shoring

The practice of relocating business processes to another country.

OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, which coordinates petroleum policies among member countries.

outsourcing

The practice of obtaining goods or services from an outside supplier.

periphery

The outer regions of a country or area that are less economically developed.

post-Fordism

An economic system characterized by flexible production and labor processes.

primary industries (sector)

Economic sectors that extract or harvest natural resources.

quaternary industries

Economic sectors that focus on knowledge-based activities involving services.

quinary industries

Economic sectors that involve high-level decision making and specialized services.

Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth

A model that outlines five stages of economic growth.

secondary industry (sector)

Economic sectors that manufacture finished goods from raw materials.

semi-periphery

Countries that are in between core and periphery in terms of economic development.

special economic zone (SEZ)

A designated area in a country with special economic regulations that differ from the rest of the country.

structural adjustment program

Economic policies imposed on less developed countries by international financial institutions.

subsidy

A financial assistance given by the government to support a specific industry.

tariff

A tax imposed on imported goods.

tertiary industry (sector)

Economic sectors that provide services to consumers and businesses.

UN Sustainable Development Goals

A set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations to address global challenges.

uneven development

The unequal distribution of resources and economic growth across different regions.

Wallerstein's World Systems Theory

A theory that views the world as a complex system divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery.

World Bank

An international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries.

World Trade Organization

An intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade.

Subsistence Agriculture

Farming that provides enough food for the farmer and their family but not for sale.