Chapter 1: Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Chapter 1 notes on anatomy, physiology, history, the scientific method, evolution, human structure and function, and medical terminology.

Anatomy

The study of form and structure of the body; cutting apart

Dissection

The process of cutting apart to study anatomy; historically essential for learning anatomy.

Comparative anatomy

Study of the bodies of more than one species to identify similarities and differences.

Radiology

The branch of medicine concerned with imaging and visualizing the interior of the body.

Gross anatomy

Structures that can be seen with the naked eye.

Histology

The observation of tissue specimens microscopically.

Histopathology

Study of tissue for signs of disease.

Cytology

The study of individual cells.

Ultrastructure

Fine detail of tissue revealed by the electron microscope.

Physiology

The study of function and how biological systems work.

Comparative physiology

Study of biological functions across different species; often informs drug and procedure development.

Hippocrates

Greek physician (ca. 400 BCE) regarded as the father of medicine.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher (ca. 350 BCE) who sought unifying themes in nature.

Galen

Roman physician (ca. 160) who wrote a notable medical text for his era.

Andreas Vesalius

advanced anatomy; performed autopsies and published the first atlas of anatomy in 1543.

Autopsy

Postmortem examination to study anatomy and pathology.

William Harvey

Physiologist who described the continuous circulation of blood (ca. 1630).

Robert Hooke

Scientist (ca. 1670) who designed microscopes and observed cells.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Microscopist (ca. 1665) who greatly improved magnification and observed microorganisms.

Carl Zeiss

Pioneer who improved the compound microscope in the mid-1800s.

Ernst Abbe

Collaborator with Zeiss; contributed to improvements in optical microscopy.

Schleiden

Contributed to the cell theory; helped establish that plants are made of cells.

Schwann

Co-developer of the cell theory; proposed that all animals are composed of cells.

Cell theory

The idea that all organisms are composed of cells, and cells are the basic units of life.

Model

An animal species used in research to study biology and disease.

Darwin

Charles Darwin; proposed evolution by natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859) and discussed human evolution in The Descent of Man (1871).

Natural selection

Differential survival and reproduction leading to changes in populations over generations.

Adaptations

Features that evolved in response to selection pressures.

DNA similarity (humans vs. chimps)

Humans and chimpanzees differ by about 1.6% in their DNA.

Primates

Order that includes monkeys, apes, and humans; characterized by shared traits such as forward-facing eyes and grasping hands.

Bipedalism

Walking upright on two legs; a key human adaptation identified in fossil records.

Australopithecus

Early genus of hominins; among the oldest known bipeds.

Homo

Genus including modern humans and closely related species like Homo erectus.

Homo erectus

Early human ancestor that migrated from Africa to parts of Asia about 1.8 million years ago.

Homo sapiens

Modern humans; originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago and are the sole surviving hominids.

Evolutionary medicine

An emerging field studying how evolutionary history shapes health and disease.

Organ system

A group of organs with a unique collective function; humans have 11 organ systems.

Organ

A structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific function and has defined boundaries.

Tissue

A mass of similar cells forming a functional region within an organ.

Four primary tissue classes

Epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular tissues.

Cells

The smallest units of life that carry out essential life processes.

Organelles

Microscopic structures inside cells (e.g., mitochondria, centrosomes, lysosomes) with specific roles.

Molecules

Two or more atoms bonded together.

Atoms

The smallest units of matter with unique chemical identities.

Reductionism

Approach that explains complex systems by studying their parts; productive but not complete.

Holism

Idea that whole organisms have emergent properties not predictable from parts alone.

Anatomical variation

Normal variations in anatomy; reference books summarize the most common forms (~70% of population).

Situs inversus

Condition where internal organs are arranged differently from the typical arrangement.

Life properties

Organized, cellular composition, metabolism and excretion, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution.

Metabolism

Sum of internal chemical changes; includes anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (breakdown).

Anabolism

Synthesis reactions building up complex molecules.

Catabolism

Breakdown reactions that release energy.

Excretion

Removal of waste products from metabolism.

Responsiveness

Ability to sense and respond to stimuli (irritability/excitability).

Movement

Ability to move or to move substances within the body.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of stable internal conditions through regulatory mechanisms.

Development

Change in form or function over an organism’s lifetime; includes differentiation and growth.

Differentiation

Transformation of generalized cells into specialized cell types.

Growth

Increase in size through chemical changes.

Reproduction

Ability to produce copies of themselves and pass on genes.

Evolution

Genetic change in populations across generations.

Mutations

Changes in DNA that occur over time.

Selection pressures

Environmental factors like climate, predators, disease, competition, and food availability that influence evolution.

Model

An animal species chosen for research questions.

Set point

The average value around which a physiological variable fluctuates in homeostasis.

Negative feedback

A process that counteracts a change to restore balance (e.g., thermostat).

Vasodilation

Widening of blood vessels to lose heat and lower body temperature.

Vasoconstriction

Narrowing of blood vessels to conserve heat.

Shivering

Muscle activity that generates heat when cold.

Baroreceptors

Pressure sensors in large arteries that help regulate blood pressure via the brainstem.

Cardiac center

Brainstem region that adjusts heart rate to help maintain blood pressure.

Positive feedback

A self-amplifying loop where a change leads to further change in the same direction (e.g., birth).

Oxytocin

Hormone driving uterine contractions during birth in a positive feedback loop.

Blood clotting

Coagulation process often driven by positive feedback.

Fever

Elevated body temperature that can become harmful if excessive (e.g., >104°F).

Gradients

Differences in variables (concentration, charge, pressure, temperature) that drive flow of matter and energy.

Physiological gradient

A gradient encountered in living systems, such as chemical, electrical, or pressure differences.

Terminolgia Anatomica

Codified anatomical terminology established in 1998 for standardization.

Greek/Latin roots

About 90% of medical terms come from 1,200 _______ roots.

Eponyms

Terms derived from the names of people; common in medical language.

Combining vowels

Vowels inserted to join word roots (e.g., a in ligament, u in ovulation).

Prefixes and suffixes

Affixes that modify the core meaning of medical terms.

Acronyms

Abbreviations formed from initial letters (e.g., PET) that are not easily deconstructed by roots.

Pronunciation

Correct pronunciation is essential in anatomical terminology.

Spelling precision

Accurate spelling prevents misidentification of structures or diseases (e.g., trapezius vs trapezium; ileum vs ilium).

Adjectives after nouns

In line with Greek/Latin practice, adjectives typically follow the noun.

Obscure medical word origins

Some terms reveal historical roots, such as brachium/brachi,i and digiti/digitorum.

Unity of form and function

Form and function are interdependent; anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

Cell theory (review)

All structure and function arise from cellular activity.

Evolution (summary)

The human body is a product of evolutionary processes.

Hierarchy of complexity

Body organization can be viewed as a series of increasing levels of complexity.

Homeostasis (summary)

Maintaining stable internal conditions is a core goal of normal physiology.

Gradients and flow

Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients, shaping physiological processes.

Medical imaging

Application of imaging techniques in medicine to visualize body structures and processes.