unification of italy

When was the French Revolution?

1789

How many people spoke Italian in the Italian peninsula in 1789?

only 2.5%

What were the different states in the peninsula at the time?

the Kingdom of Sardinia/Sardinia-Piedmont/Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, Tuscany, Parma, Moderna, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples/of the two Sicilies

Who ruled Piedmont?

the House of Savoy (strong) from Turin (the capital)

Who ruled Lombardy?

Austrian representatives, backed up by the Austrian army. This was an economically advanced region, especially in Milan, which had a population of 130,000

Who ruled Venetia? What was special about it?

Venetia was ruled by the local aristocracy/elite, but was influenced heavily by Austria. It was a REPUBLIC, and had an old, Renaissance-era constitution.

Who were the Central Duchies ruled by?

they each had their own Dukes, but were so influenced by Austria that they were called satellites of Austria. e.g. Tuscany was ruled by the House of Lorraine, part of the Habsburg dynasty.

Who were the Papal States ruled by?

a temporal Pope - this was an economically and militarily weak region, which relied on the support of other Catholic countries.

Who was the Kingdom of the two Sicilies ruled by?

a Bourbon king, who ruled by a viceroy in Sicily. This was the poorest state in the peninsula, and poverty was rife. Naples was also the largest city in Italy.

Who were some of the Italian thinkers pre the French Revolution who had ideas about a united Italy?

Dante, Machiavelli and Petrarch.

What impact did the French Revolution have?

it bore nationalism and nationalist ideas like self-determination, national identity (both political and social/cultural and self-government. It gave a language to nationalist feeling, and its ideas would endure throughout the period. The revolution was the first proper attack on the ancien regime and gave rise to Napoleon. It would change Europe forever.

What was the ancien regime?

the old order - oppressive rulers who ruled by whim without a constitution, no civil rights or freedoms like votes or freedom of speech.

What impact did the French Revolution have in Italy?

it brought ideas of nationalism, as it did across Europe. It created fear among the ruling class/leaders, as it did across Europe. However, the intellectual classes in Italy were tiny, and most people were peasants. Further, not all of the minority of non-peasants would be able to understand, support and act on these ideas. The only main practical effect in Italy was Napoleon, whose dominance was born from the chaos in France.

How could you classify the French Revolution's impact on Italy?

long term - ideas would only be useful later on, more theoretical than practical in 1789.

What proportion of people in Italy in 1789 were peasants?

85-90%

How did the border of the Italian peninsula change under Napoleon?

the Kingdom of Naples remained intact and was ruled by Napoleon's brother. Much of the north of Italy and the east of the Papal States became the 'Kingdom of Italy' (symbolic), which was ruled by Napoleon with his step-son as a viceroy. The rest was incorporated into the French Empire.

What effect did these changes have?

the creation of a state actually called 'Italy' was very significant. The fact that Napoleon had so easily ripped up the borders showed that something similar could be done again. The retention of Naples's border suggested that they were traditionally solid and thus could cause problems trying to unify.

What impact did Napoleonic rule have on the army?

there was conscription and poor conditions. It did train Italians how to fight and brought men together that may have been divided otherwise. They were united in an oppressive institution.

How may have the army impacted Italian nationalism?

These men in the army gained more worldly experiences, learnt new ideas and ways of living that introduced nationalism and increased nationalist feeling among them.

How many were in the 'Italian' army?

80,000

How many Italians left on the 1812 campaign, and how many returned?

27,000 left, 1,000 returned. They were injured and forced to walk back.

What was the army's economic impact?

income taxes were raised to pay for the huge army - up to 60% of all tax revenue was spent on the military, even in peacetime.

How did Napoleonic rule impact the Catholic Church?

the Papal States were divided physically. Napoleon removed the temporal power of the Pope and his significance was hugely decreased. Two popes were kidnapped and imprisoned and the importance of God declined. Large amounts of the Church's land was also sold off.

When was the temporal power of the Pope removed?

1809

Who were the two popes kidnapped by Napoleon?

Pope Pius VI and Pope Pius VII

What impact did Napoleonic rule in the Church have on Italian nationalism?

This attack on Italy's national identity as the centre of the Catholic world fuelled nationalism, and impacted more than just the urban classes, as church was very important to the peasantry.

How were the wealthy impacted under Napoleonic rule?

there are differing accounts - some benefited by buying the Church's sold-off land, others were ruined, perhaps by the high taxes and a disregard for the ancien regime

How were the peasants impacted under Napoleon's rule?

there was very little change to their ordinary lives. Peasants didn't pay attention to politics. If there was any change, it was doing more work for the growing middle classes.

What proportion of the population did peasants make up at this point?

still 85-90%

What proportion of the population did the urban classes make up under Napoleonic rule?

10%

How did Napoleonic rule impact the urban classes economically?

trade barriers were removed, increasing trade and thus prosperity. They also were able to trade with the huge French empire. However, there was less tax revenue due to the lack of customs tariffs, and lawyers who advised on these also lost out. A lack of protectionism meant more competition and therefore some losing out too. Finally, there were higher income taxes to pay for e.g. the military - they made more money, but more of it was taken away.

How were the urban classes affected socially under Napoleonic rule?

the Napoleonic Code brought in many changes (mostly political), like vaccinations and safer streets due to street lighting.

How were the urban classes affected politically under Napoleonic rule?

the Code Napoleon introduced set civil laws/rights and also set up a representative parliament in each state. Young men gained experience of politics and systems of governance, as well as learning new ideas of 'Liberté, égalité, fraternité' or being citizens of a state rather than subjects of a king.

What were the main impacts of Napoleonic rule on Italy?

geographical change, INTRODUCTION OF NATIONALIST IDEAS (Code Napoleon basically a 'how-to' for revolution), growth of nationalism (resentment), long term impact on unification, practical change. However, how many were really affected?

When was the Vienna Congress?

1815

Who was Metternich and what did he think?

he was a prominent Austrian statesman who was very reactionary - he wanted to secure Austrian dominance across the continent and 'extinguish the spirit of Italian nationalism'. He also believed that Italy was just 'a geographical expression' and 'Italian affairs do not exist'. Metternich had a great belief in the ancien regime and preserving the status quo.

What was the Holy Alliance?

a military league between Austria, Russia and Prussia

What was the idea of the 'balance of power'?

it was an implicit compromise between the great powers of Europe to maintain peace, stability and their own control.

Who was the restored monarch of Piedmont after 1815?

King Victor Emmanuel I

How was Piedmont under his rule?

it was oppressive and reactionary - he removed any non-nobles from positions of power, removed all aspects of the Code Napoleon, put education back in the control of the Roman Catholic Church, allowed Jesuits to return, reinstated customs barriers, put Jews in ghettos and also destroyed parks and streetlamps built by Napoleon

Who was the ruler of Tuscany after 1815?

King Ferdinand III

Who was Ferdinand III?

the brother of the Austrian emperor

What was Tuscany like under his rule?

it was very progressive - increased focus on education (universities of Pisa and Siena, more education for girls), no Jesuits allowed, more health facilities, freedom of expression

What was an example of this freedom of expression in Tuscany?

the journal of literature, arts and science Antologia, whose contributors included Mazzini.

What city was prominent in Tuscany as being perhaps the cultural and political centre of Italy?

Florence

Who ruled Parma after 1815?

Duchess Marie-Louise

What was her rule like?

she replaced the Code Napoleon with something very similar, and wouldn't allow a policy of blind reactionism.

Who returned as monarch to the Kingdom of the two Sicilies in 1815?

King Ferdinand I

What did he do?

he cancelled the Sicilian constitution of 1812 despite protests, which gave Sicilians a say in their governance, and declared Sicily as under the government of Naples. His rule was cruel, oppressive and produced a period of economic weakness.

Who ruled Modena after the Vienna Congress?

Duke Francis IV (a Habsburg)

What happened under his rule?

non-nobles in positions of power were removed, Jesuits returned, liberals were hated. Francis also quarrelled with Austria over the size of his territory.

Who were the zealots?

a series of popes who established control over government, education, culture and politics in the Papal States

What changed under the zealots?

the Code Napoleon was abolished, all power lay with the clergy (temporal power restored), there was extreme censorship and repression of opposition (torture used in Inquisition), religious persecution and intolerance increased, there was economic harship.

Who were the religious group particularly affected?

the Jews - they were confined to ghettos. Some children could be brought up R.C. if they were secretly baptised.

Who was Edgar Mortara?

a Jewish boy (possible baptised) who was kidnapped from the ghetto in 1858, the sensation around whom brought about the end of kidnapping

Why did the Pope cause some economic hardship?

because he refused to allow railways or telegraph poles to be built in the Papal States, hindering its economic progress.

Who were the Carbonari?

A secret underground society fighting for liberal political reform in Italy - they were formed under Napoleonic rule to resist his oppression.

Who were the members of the Carbonari?

they were mostly well educated and from the middle classes - lawyers, doctors, army officers, etc. There were a few noble members but no working class members.

What were the beliefs or aims of the Carbonari?

they were mostly quite mild - aiming for constitutional monarchies and liberal political & social reform. There was a big social element - members wanting to change society and have better lives. They were liberals, with very few radicals/republicans.

What was the issue with the Carbonari's aims?

they were kept hidden from almost all members - only the most trusted senior members knew the plans. This was to prevent shutdown/arrests by preventing infiltration, and also meant that more people were attracted to join, as their beliefs were flexible. This would have caused conflict if any of their revolts/uprisings had stuck, as there would have been widely ranging opinions on how to run a state.

Who were notable members of the Carbonari?

General Guglielmo Pepe and Mazzini (for a time)

How many members did the Carbonari have in Naples?

60,000 (5% of the adult male population) - this withstood Naples trying to repress it.

What suggested that the Carbonari was ineffective?

the differing aims, untrained/undisciplined, disorganised, disconnected - shown in 1820-21 and 1831 revolutions

What suggested that the Carbonari was effective?

high member numbers, Metternich set up a spy network to shut it down (but this didn't work)

What caused the 1820 revolution in Naples?

in 1818 King Ferdinand had increased the Church's power to censor material. He also decreased public spending. There was an increase in poverty, corruption and a decrease in freedom of speech, which affected the middle classes the most. Effective January 1820 revolution in Spain, which also had a Bourbon monarch.

What caused the 1820 revolution in Sicily?

Falling agricultural prices (affected peasants). Ferdinand cancelled the Sicilian constitution of 1812 in 1815, forcing it to become part of Naples. Effective January 1820 revolution in Spain, which also had a Bourbon monarch.

What were the events of the 1820 revolution in Naples?

a group of rebels, made up of 30 Carbonari, 100 junior military officers and led by a priest, marched to Avellino. The army didn't really stop them - General Pepe (hidden Carbonari member) turned sides and led the rebels. The King promised a constitution (vote to all males, no archaic privileges) and swore this to God. A new government was appointed and Pepe became head of the army.

What were the events of the 1820 revolution in Sicily?

there were riots in Palermo, government offices were burnt down, demands for a constitution, prisoners released, Neapolitan governor sent back to Naples on a boat - THIS WAS ALL DONE BY PEASANTS

What were the initial consequences of the 1820 revolution in Naples?

there was a new government, more members of the Carbonari, a promised constitution

What were the initial consequences of the 1820 revolution in Sicily?

the new government in Naples decided that even they would maintain Sicily as part of Naples at all costs.

What were the later consequences of the 1820 revolution in Naples and Sicily?

the King was summoned to a meeting of the Great Powers in Laibach and Austrian forces invaded and crushed the uprisings in March 1821. Trade guilds in Sicily were shut down.

What were the causes of failure in Naples and Sicily?

Austrian might, perhaps (for Sicily) the fact that Sicily wouldn't have independence even under the new, liberal government

What were the causes for the 1820 revolution in Piedmont?

reactionary King Victor Emmanuel, uprisings in Naples and Sicily

What were the main events in the 1820 Piedmont revolution?

the numbers of Carbonari increased. A group of rebels proclaimed a 'Kingdom of Italy' at Alessandria and declared war on Austria. There was an army mutiny in Turin, which caused Victor Emmanuel to abdicate. The revolutionaries wanted the more liberal Charles Albert to become king, but Charles Felix, first in line to the throne, denounced him and became king. Austrian forces defeated the revolutionaries at the Battle of Novara in April 1821.

What were the consequences of the Piedmont revolution in 1820-21?

Piedmont was occupied by the Austrian army from 1821-23

What were the main causes for the failure of the Piedmont revolution?

Austrian might, Charles Felix (appealed to Metternich)

What was the cause of the Papal States revolution in 1831?

oppressive rule of the Roman Catholic Church, perhaps July 1830 Paris revolution

What were the main events in the revolutions in the Papal States, 1831?

uprisings organised by the professional classes, met with little to no resistance (weak government). 'Government of the Italian Provinces' set up on 5th February 1831 in Bologna.

What were the consequences of the Papal States revolution 1831?

Austrian forces defeated the rebels, there were minor uprisings in 1831/32 but there were also put down by troops.

What were the causes of the 1831 Modena revolution?

July 1830 Paris revolution - Charles X forced to abdicate and 'citizen king' Louis Philippe came to the throne. Duke Francis IV left for Vienna after Enrico Misley was arrested

Who was Enrico Misley?

a well educated Modenan who planned an uprising but told his plans to the Duke, who he trusted. He was then arrested, 2 days before the uprising was meant to start. Because of this, Duke Francis IV went to Vienna to try and negotiate support to prevent any further threats like this, and when he was out of the country, others revolted.

What were the events of the 1831 Modena revolution?

while Francis was in Vienna, revolutionaries took over the city of Modena and set up a provisional government (9th February). Francis returned after a month with Austrian forces (March 1831)

What were the consequences of the 1831 Modena revolution?

the Austrian army occupied Modena, there was a harsh crackdown - 'revolutionary features' like even a beard or moustache could lead to an arrest

What were the main reasons for the failure of the revolution in Modena?

Austrian might, arrest of Misley, little time to organise after he was arrested.

What was the cause of the revolution in Parma in 1831?

uprisings in Modena (and so Modena's causes too)

What were the events of the revolution in Parma in 1831?

there were riots demanding a constitution, Duchess Marie Louise fled and a provisional government was set up on 15th February 1831.

What were the consequences of the 1831 revolution in Parma?

Austrian forces occupied the country.

How was Mazzini described by Metternich?

"the most dangerous man in Europe" - so must have been a threat

What were Mazzini's beliefs?

revolution from below without any outside help, equality of all/'brotherhood of people', final aim of unification in a republic (not a federation), democracy and guaranteed rights for individuals. He also dealt with the 'social question.' His tactics were flexible, anything to achieve unification - e.g. not going against a monarch if they were willing to help

What did Mazzini do?

he founded the Young Italy, inspired many to his cause, including Garibaldi, he was President of the Roman Republic 1848-1849, he wrote extensively

What was Mazzini's significance?

he was the most committed, dedicated and longest serving campaigner for Italian nationalism. The Young Italy was very significant.

What is the 'however moment' for Mazzini's works and actions?

he was in exile for 40+ years and became out of touch with nationalist feeling in Italy, especially among the peasant population. He exaggerated this due to his ignorance. His works would still have only been accessible to a small demographic of people. Uprisings organised by him and the Young Italy failed.

When was the Young Italy founded?

1831

What is the Italian name for the Young Italy?

La Giovine Italia

What did the Young Italy do?

They spread the ideas of unification and Mazzini through their journal, also called La Giovine Italia.

What uprisings did the Young Italy organise/have a part in?

a plan for a Naples uprising in 1832, a rising in Savoy, an uprising in Genoa in February 1834, led by Garibaldi, that never went ahead, organised a mutiny in Piedmontese army, attempted coup in Piedmont - 1833, detected before it began, 67 arrested, 12 of them killed, Mazzini condemned to death by Charles Albert.

How did Verdi and music affect Italian nationalism?

they had political undertones and were not confined or defined by the borders of the Italian peninsula. His work particularly inspired the Milanese. His operas made people more conscious of nationalist feeling they had.

Which operas in particular were influential?

Nabucco - the Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves insinuated that the Italians were like the Israelites in being oppressed.

I Lombardi - there were hints of anti-Austrian sentiment as it was very nationalistic. Performances sometimes caused fights between Italians and Austrian army officers in the audience.

How significant was language in Italian nationalism?

although some national meetings or journals were published in Italian, the Italian language did not contribute at all to Italian national identity. However, it did present a more moderate form of Italian nationalism to some, as opposed to Mazzinian nationalism.

In 1871, 10 years after unification, how many people spoke Italian?

630,000 (out of 27 million) , 2.3%