Exercise Psychology, Goal Setting, and Motivation

lack

According to one study, fewer than 50% of those who begin a program of regular physical activity will continue their involvement after six months. In addition, for those who do adhere, the level of improvement in muscular strength, cardiovascular fitness, and other fitness-related goals may be compromised by a , , of intensity and effort.

anxiolytic

anxiety reducing

anxiolytic, anti-depressive, and cognitive benefits

Notable among the mental health benefits are a

mental health benefits

In addition to the desirable physiological consequences of physical activity, there is ample scientific evidence that participation in physical activity has significant

7.3% to 8.5%

It is estimated that , , of the American population have anxiety-related disorders to the extent that treatment is warranted. In addition, most people experience episodic, and sometimes extended, stress-related symptoms during their lives.

state and trait

Regular physical exercise relieves both , , anxiety–related symptoms

State anxiety

can be defined as the actual experience of anxiety that is characterized by feelings of apprehension or threat and accompanied by increased physiological arousal, particularly as mediated by the autonomic nervous system and refers to short-term stress-related processes

flight-or-fight response

State anxiety can largely be characterized by the , , first described by Cannon in 1929 —relatively uncontrolled elevations in heart rate, blood pressure, and activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, with heightened stress hormones such as cortisol.

trait anxiety

is a dispositional factor relating to the probability that a given person is likely to perceive situations as threatening and refers to long-term processes.

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory

Typically, both forms of anxiety are measured by self-report scales such as the , , or in terms of physiological variables such as muscle tension, blood pressure, or brain electrical activity.

resistance, flexibility, and aerobic

Further, researchers have found that individuals who did a combination of , , exercises had significantly greater reductions in their depression than individuals who completed only aerobic exercise

clinical and nonclinical

Exercise helps individuals with both , , depression and anxiety

higher-intensity exercise (i.e., above ventilatory threshold)

As one would expect, , does not seem to provide immediate stress reduction benefits or enjoyment, although some people who are extremely well conditioned may derive a cathartic release from this type of activity

opponent-process theory of emotion

advanced by Solomon and Corbit, which posits a rebound expression of positive affect on termination of a high-intensity exercise bout after the uncomfortable feelings and strain during exertion.

beta-endorphin and mood-altering central neurotransmitters

The rebound “feel-better” effect following intense exercise may be due to the unmasking of physiological coping responses such as the release of , , (e.g., serotonin), which attenuate the stress of exercise during exertion but are no longer opposed by the stress processes once the work and effort stop

perceived exertion or the effort sense

the release of beta-endorphin manages or economizes the hormonal response to work, as well as the ventilatory or breathing activity involved during exercise, which is a primary input to

counteractive physiological

The maintenance of these , , responses—which manage exercise-induced strain—beyond the period of exertion may explain why the trained exercise participant derives a sense of satisfaction and substantial positive affect once a challenging and demanding workout is completed.

ventilatory threshold

Furthermore, a continually growing body of exercise psychology studies has revealed the majority of general population exercisers do not respond positively to training at or above the

10 heartbeats

The intensity difference between individuals enjoying aerobic exercise during and after the exercise bout versus not enjoying their exercise bout was just , , per minute

volley of afferent rhythmic impulses

It is possible that cerebro-cortical arousal is inhibited by a , , from the skeletal muscles during the exercise that provide feedback to an inhibitory, or relaxation, site in the brain stem, and this causes a “quieting” of the cognitive activity associated with anxiety or stress states

rhythmic

Interestingly, many workout routines are , , in nature.

left frontal activation

frontal region of the brain that underlies positive affect and motivation to engage one’s environment

right frontal activation

frontal region of the brain that underlies negative affect and withdrawal-oriented motivation.

frontal asymmetry and mood

Some investigators have argued that the physiological changes experienced systemically during exercise reflexively influence the central nervous system and the brain, resulting in desirable changes in

thermogenic effect

According to this model based on work with animals, the metabolic inefficiency of the human body results in heat production during exercise that causes a cascade of events culminating in relaxation.

hypothalamus

The part of the brain known as the , , detects the elevation in the body’s temperature and consequently promotes a cortical relaxation effect in an attempt to maintain homeostasis.

alpha and gamma motor neurons

cortical relaxation effect in an attempt to maintain homeostasis results in decreased activation of efferent (motor) nerve fibers—specifically the , , to the extrafusal and intrafusal muscle fibers, respectively—leading to reduced muscle tension and less sensitivity of the muscle spindles to stretch.

afferent (sensory) nerve

This “calming down” from reduced muscle tension and less sensitivity of the muscle spindles to stretch results in less , , stimulation or feedback to the brain stem arousal center (i.e., the reticular activating formation) and subsequently promotes a relaxation state.

caring

Intervention research in exercise settings has shown clients feel more competent when their leaders make them feel safe, welcomed, and valued i.e.,

task-involving

Intervention research in exercise settings has shown clients feel more competent when their leaders emphasize individual effort and mastery and treat mistakes as learning opportunities i.e.,

Caring and task-involving

leader behaviors fostered greater connection between the clients and the exercise leaders (e.g., personal trainer or group exercise instructor)

increased connection

As a result of the clients’ , , and competence, their intrinsic motivation, commitment to continue exercising, and life satisfaction were all increased

climate

Furthermore, studies have shown that youth and young adult group exercise participants perceived being less stressed, and they produced less cortisol (i.e., stress hormone) when they experience a caring, task-involving

sense of mastery

Finally, accomplishing the exercise goal may promote a significant , , or self-efficacy that can also alter how a person feels after exercise.

feel-better phenomenon

Overall, the change in psychological state from exercise is referred to as the , , and may result from a complex interaction of social and psychobiological factors that come together to change the overall psychological state of the exercise participant.

clinically depressed

As with anxiety, research evidence clearly and consistently reveals that physical exercise yields statistically significant and moderate effect sizes (i.e., reductions) both for men and women who are , , and for those experiencing less severe forms

biogenic amines

As in the case of anxiety, exercise alleviates depression through several mechanisms. Two related possibilities center on the release of , , in the brain.

serotonin

an important neurotransmitter with antidepressant effects, are elevated during and after physical activity, as are dopamine and its receptor-binding sensitivity, thus reducing the likelihood of both depression and Parkinson’s disease

dopamine

There is strong evidence that physical activity maintains , , (an essential neurotransmitter involved in motor control processes) in the central nervous system. In addition, research reveals that this neurotransmitter is essential to the learning of motor skills and to mental health (i.e., protection against depression)

bouts of depression

Levels of norepinephrine, another neurotransmitter that is lowered during , , are also increased with exercise

sense of accomplishment or enhanced self-efficacy

Beyond the biogenic amine hypothesis, it is also likely that some people benefit from the social interaction that occurs in many exercise settings or from the , , that stems from greater strength and flexibility in performing daily activities.

cognitive benefits

In addition to the emotional (affective) benefits, exercise confers

Cognition

consists of memory, analytical thinking, planning, focus, concentration, and decision making.

physically fit

People who are , , seem to function more effectively than less physically active people on tasks involving cognitive demands

reaction time (RT)

Importantly , , has been described as a fundamental index of the overall integrity of the central nervous system (CNS)

outperforming

In fact, the older men who were physically fit performed similarly to a group of younger college-aged men while also , , the sedentary men.

the motivation and energy

to engage in activity and exercise are critical elements in the achievement of psychological and physiological benefits.

Goal setting

is a powerful strategy for increasing the level of participation in exercise programs. This technique can be defined as a strategic approach to behavioral change by which progressive standards of success are set in an attempt to increasingly approximate a desired standard of achievement

target of achievement

Importantly, systematic goal setting fosters a sense of mastery and success as people pursue the desired standard or

true wants and needs

Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor. Rather than simply extracting information from an assessment and imposing goals on the client, it is important for the personal trainer to identify the client’s , , and to act as a facilitator in uncovering the goals that the client is most compelled to achieve

measurable, achievable, and consistent

together, through directed conversation, the personal trainer and the client should identify goals that are , , with one another.

successive achievement

In this manner, the goals or standards of , , represent a series of attainable steps framed within a long-term goal that provides personal meaning to the participant.

Feedback and reinforcement

are critical to the success of a goal-setting program as each progressive goal is sought.

Feedback

or knowledge of results, is inherent in the completion of or progress toward the short-term goal and leads to the cognitive evaluation of success or failure.

affective state

Importantly, the realization of success or failure also invokes a corresponding emotional or

present ability level

Goals that are challenging but nearer to the , , of the client are superior to too-easy or very difficult goals to effecting behavior change

long-term goal

The purpose of a , , is to provide a meaningful pursuit for the client.

high level of meaning and purpose

Additionally, a personal trainer can assume that a goal selected by the client has a , , because it sets the direction of the short-term goals and provides a destination that the client values.

core values

Thus, it is prudent to conduct initial interviews with clients to assess not just their short-term needs but also their

short-term goal

provides a strategy to achieve the long-term goal via attainable steps.

Challenging short-term goals

are an effective tool to elicit the effort and intensity from the client that will result in a meaningful physiological and psychological change.

50%

A challenging goal is one that has about a , , chance of success.

compromise

Thus, a well-constructed short-term goal represents a , , between guaranteeing success, as in the case of a goal that is too easy and requiring too much effort.

meaningless

Short-term goals are , , if they are not reasonably difficult; they will lead to going through the motions as opposed to investing real effort. If clients do not achieve a short-term goal initially, they will likely continue to attempt to achieve it or maintain the behavior (e.g., caloric restriction and walking activity in the case of weight reduction) in order to obtain the desired reinforcement.

adjusted or replaced

If a short-term goal is not attained in the specified time period, then it needs to be , , with another.

psychological and a neurobiological level

The power of behavioral reinforcement can be explained on both a

objective or highly quantifiable

it is best to identify , , goals so that clients can target effort toward a clear standard resulting in unambiguous knowledge of results.

initial fitness level and training experience

the number of short-term goals needed to achieve the same desired long-term goal for two clients depends on their

process, performance, and outcome

Goals can be categorized as , , goals depending on the level of personal control the client has over them.

Process goals

are goals that clients have a high degree of personal control over

outcome goals

are ones the client has little control over.

Performance goals

fall in between in relation to personal control.

examples of a process goal

are exercise form and technique, positive attitude during an exercise routine, and number of days per week the client engages in physical activity outside of exercising with a personal trainer. (The amount of effort applied during a workout)

high degree of effort

Regardless of the difficulty of the short-term goal, clients can experience success with a , , if they set a process goal.

social comparison

Outcome goals are exemplified by , , such as winning or beating an opponent in a race. Such goals can be highly arousing and can induce great intensity of effort for individuals who like to compare themselves against others.

outcome itself

However, outcome goals present less probability of success than do process goals: Clients can guarantee the effort they give to achieve an advantage over an “opponent” but they cannot guarantee the

self-referenced personal performance

Performance goals are more difficult to achieve than process goals and are typically stated in terms of a , , standard for the client rather than in comparison to another client or an opponent.

intermediate

Performance goals are , , on the continuum of personal control ranging from low (outcome) to high (process).

interval goal

An example of personalized performance goals that challenge the client to focus on self-improvement in a personally meaningful way is based on the notion of a range or

range of success

Interval goals are calculated from the client’s recent performance history in which a , , is identified. The limits of the goal are established in the form of a lower (most attainable) and an upper (most challenging) boundary of success.

The lower boundary

is defined as the client’s previous best 1-repetition maximum (1RM) performance.

upper boundary

the average of recent performances (three to five) is calculated to determine the difference between the average and previous best performance.

client’s performance variability

This difference (lower boundary and upper boundary) yields an estimate of the

highly challenging

The difference (lower boundary and upper boundary) is then added to the previous best to generate a , , self-referenced level of success.

expected to improve

Personal trainers can also calculate performance goals based on how much their client is , , during the current phase of training. This can help a client hold reasonable expectations during different training phases, such as for hypertrophy compared with maximal strength or muscular endurance.

variety of goals

A successful goal-setting program should include a

connect

The following are process goals the client may use on different training days to , , the training to the long-term race goal.

commitment and adherence

the principle is that a variety of goals associated with varying levels of personal control may well sustain , , to the physical training program.

perceptions

Consideration of individual differences in clients’ , , of achievement situations helps increase the effectiveness of goal setting

task-involved

clients who gauge their performance improvement on the basis of previous ability level are said to be

ego-involved or other-referenced

clients base their sense of improvement on comparison with the performance of one or more others

Everyone

holds each of these goal orientations (task-involved/ego-involved) or definitions of success to some degree

permits social comparison

When clients perceive their own ability or fitness level to be high and are highly ego-involved (i.e., comparative with others), then they are highly aroused by social comparison and put forth greater effort in a situation that

self-referenced goals

Task-involved goals are , , In other words, goals that are relative to the client and the client’s prior performance.

inappropriate emphasis

Clients who are already task-involved may become discouraged if , , is placed on comparisons of their achievements with those of others.

fosters

Promoting self-referenced goals and recognizing (i.e., praising) when a client’s goals are achieved helps emphasize goals that are achievable by the client and , , their task involvement.

orientations and perceived ability

To be effective in goal setting, personal trainers want to include the type of goals that fit their clients’ goal

preliminary goal

When starting out with a new client, clarify a , , based more on process than on performance.

absence of required knowledge

Both the personal trainer and client should recognize that , , can hinder the achievement of long-term goals.

time frame

Once measurable goals are clarified, attach a , , to each goal.