AP U.S. Government & Politics – Semester 1-2 Master Vocabulary

Comprehensive vocabulary deck covering foundational concepts, institutions, processes, court cases, and policies discussed throughout the AP Government lecture notes. Ideal for semester-long review and final exam preparation.

Rule of Law

Principle that all citizens and government officials are subject to the law and equal before it.

Individualism

Belief that people possess inalienable freedoms the government cannot remove without due process.

Free Enterprise

Economic system in which privately-owned businesses operate for profit with limited government regulation; capitalism.

Equality of Opportunity

Concept that government must give every citizen an equal starting chance regardless of demographics.

Limited Government

Idea that governmental power is restricted by a written constitution and ultimately derives from the people.

Political Socialization

Process by which individuals acquire political beliefs; family is the #1 factor.

Globalization

Growing economic interdependence of countries that influences voters’ views on international policy.

Majority–Minority Shift

Demographic trend in which no single racial/ethnic group will form a majority of the U.S. population.

Exit Poll

Election-day survey of voters as they leave polling places asking whom they voted for and why.

Radical (Ideology)

Favoring revolutionary change to create a completely new social, political, or economic system.

Liberal (Ideology)

Advocates significant reforms to address perceived inequities in society and the economy.

Moderate (Ideology)

Supports limited change; views current political system as mostly satisfactory.

Conservative (Ideology)

Prefers maintaining existing political, social, and economic structures with minimal change.

Reactionary (Ideology)

Seeks to restore a previous social or political order viewed as better than the present.

Gender Gap

Persistent tendency of women to support Democratic candidates more than men do.

Political Participation

Any activity that attempts to influence politics, with voting in presidential elections most common.

Monetary Policy

Apolitical management of the economy via interest-rate decisions by the Federal Reserve.

Fiscal Policy

Political decisions on taxing and spending made by Congress and the President.

Supply-Side Economics

Theory that lower taxes and reduced regulation spur economic growth by increasing consumer spending.

Keynesian Economics

View that government should use higher taxes and spending to manage economic demand.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document asserting natural rights and listing grievances against King George III.

Consent of the Governed

Idea that governmental authority comes from the people, who can replace it if abused.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first constitution (1781-89) that created a weak national government lacking taxing power.

Shays’ Rebellion

1786 Massachusetts uprising that exposed weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Participatory Democracy

Model emphasizing broad citizen involvement in government functions such as voting or paying taxes.

Pluralist Democracy

Model where multiple groups compete and share power, and government protects varied interests.

Elite Democracy

Model asserting that wealthy and well-connected citizens exert disproportionate influence over government.

Philadelphia Convention

1787 meeting originally to revise the Articles but instead drafted a new Constitution.

Great Compromise

Constitutional agreement creating a bicameral Congress with proportional House and equal Senate.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Deal allowing states to count 60 % of enslaved persons for representation and taxation.

Electoral College

Body of electors chosen by states that formally selects the U.S. President and Vice President.

Federalist Papers

85 essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay advocating ratification of the Constitution.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratification who feared a powerful central government and demanded a Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

First ten constitutional amendments protecting individual civil liberties from federal (and later state) infringement.

Formal Amendment Process

Four constitutional methods that always require supermajority votes of Congress and the states.

Informal Constitutional Change

Evolution of government through court decisions, executive orders, and societal changes without amendments.

Republic

Government in which citizens elect representatives to make and enforce laws on their behalf.

Separation of Powers

Division of authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Checks and Balances

Each branch’s ability to limit the powers of the other branches.

Federalist No. 51

Madison essay explaining separation of powers and checks and balances in the Constitution.

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist essay warning that a large republic would threaten personal liberty.

Federalism

System in which national, state, and local governments share authority over the same territory.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI provision making federal law superior to conflicting state laws.

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 case upholding implied powers and denying states the power to tax the national bank.

Expressed (Enumerated) Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution, chiefly Article I §8 for Congress.

Implied Powers

Powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause allowing Congress to carry out expressed powers.

Inherent Powers

Powers naturally belonging to any sovereign national government, e.g., foreign diplomacy.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by national and state governments, such as taxation and law enforcement.

Reserved Powers

Authorities kept by the states under the Tenth Amendment, like licensing and elections.

Gibbons v. Ogden

1824 steamboat case expanding Congress’s commerce power over interstate trade.

United States v. Lopez

1995 decision limiting Congress’s commerce power; guns in school zones not economic activity.

Dual Federalism

Layer-cake model where state and federal spheres are clearly separated (1789-1933 ideal).

Cooperative Federalism

Marble-cake model with intertwined state and federal responsibilities (post-New Deal).

Devolution

Transfer of policy responsibility from the federal government back to the states.

Fiscal Federalism

Federal use of grants-in-aid to influence state and local policy.

Categorical Grant

Federal money with strict spending guidelines on specific programs or projects.

Block Grant

Federal funds given for broad purposes with few strings attached, favored by states.

Mandate

Federal requirement that states perform certain actions; may be funded or unfunded.

Linkage Institution

Structure connecting citizens to government, e.g., parties, elections, interest groups, media.

Political Party

Coalition seeking to win elections and control government to shape policy.

Party Platform

Formal statement of a political party’s policy goals and positions.

Candidate-Centered Campaign

Election focus on the individual candidate rather than the party or platform.

Critical (Realigning) Election

Election marking a lasting shift in party coalitions, often during national crisis.

Winner-Take-All System

Electoral system where the highest vote-getter wins the office; discourages minor parties.

Third Party

Political party other than Democrats or Republicans, often ideological, single-issue, or splinter.

Rational-Choice Voting

Model where voters support candidates perceived to maximize personal benefit.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on a candidate’s promises for future performance.

Retrospective Voting

Voting based on incumbent performance record.

Party-Line Voting

Casting ballots exclusively for candidates of one’s chosen party.

Primary Election

Intraparty contest to choose nominees for the general election.

Open Primary

Primary in which any registered voter may choose which party’s ballot to vote.

Closed Primary

Primary limited to voters registered with that party.

Frontloading

States scheduling primaries early to gain media attention and influence nominations.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Agency created by FECA (1974) to enforce federal campaign-finance laws.

Hard Money

Campaign contributions that are limited and fully disclosed to the FEC.

Soft Money

Unlimited, less regulated funds given to parties or outside groups for election activities.

Buckley v. Valeo

1976 ruling equating campaign spending with free speech and allowing unlimited candidate self-funding.

Citizens United v. FEC

2010 decision allowing corporations and unions to spend unlimited independent money on elections.

527 Group

Tax-exempt organization that may spend unlimited money on issue advocacy, not candidate coordination.

501(c) Group

Non-profit allowed to spend half of funds on politics without disclosing donors; "dark money."

Super PAC

Independent-expenditure-only committee that may raise unlimited funds to support or oppose candidates.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

Entity formed by interest groups to donate limited hard money and spend on elections.

Special Interest Group (SIG)

Organization seeking to influence public policy on specific issues.

Lobbyist

Professional advocate who attempts to influence legislation and regulation on behalf of a SIG.

Iron Triangle

Stable relationship among a congressional committee, bureaucracy, and interest group.

Issue Network

Temporary alliance of various actors for a specific policy task; less permanent than iron triangle.

Free-Rider Problem

Tendency of individuals to benefit from group efforts without contributing.

Selective Exposure

Habit of consuming media that aligns with one’s existing views.

Horse-Race Journalism

Media focus on polling and election standings rather than substantive issues.

Trial Balloon

Intentional news leak to gauge public reaction before fully committing to a policy.

Bully Pulpit

President’s use of visibility to influence the public and pressure other branches.

Imperial Presidency

Criticism claiming a president has exceeded constitutional authority, acting like a monarch.

Executive Order

Directive issued by the President to federal agencies; carries force of law until revoked or ruled unconstitutional.

Signing Statement

Presidential commentary on a bill at signing, indicating interpretation or implementation guidance.

Veto

President’s constitutional rejection of a bill passed by Congress.

Pocket Veto

Bill dies because the President takes no action within ten days of congressional adjournment.

Line-Item Veto (illegal)

Power struck down in 1998 that would allow presidents to cancel specific spending items.

War Powers Resolution

1973 law requiring presidential consultation with Congress before deploying troops beyond 60 days.

Office of Management & Budget (OMB)

Executive office that drafts the President’s budget and oversees agency spending.

Continuing Resolution

Temporary funding law allowing government operations when Congress has not passed a new budget.