AP CHEM

Adoption Studies

Research studies that examine how adopted individuals compare to their biological and adoptive families to assess genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Behavior

Observable actions or responses of individuals, shaped by both hereditary and environmental factors.

Environmental Factors (Nurture)

External influences on behavior and mental processes, such as family, culture, education, and life experiences.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological approach that examines how natural selection influences behavior and mental processes to enhance survival and reproduction.

Family Studies

Research examining behavioral and psychological similarities among relatives to understand hereditary influences.

Heredity

The genetic transmission of traits that influence physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics.

Mental Processes

Internal cognitive functions, such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving, shaped by both nature and nurture.

Natural Selection

The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over generations.

Twin Studies

Research that compares identical and fraternal twins to investigate the influence of genetics and environment on behavior and mental processes.

Eugenics

A controversial application of evolutionary principles aimed at selectively promoting or discouraging reproduction among certain populations, often leading to discrimination.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Brain

The central organ of the nervous system that processes information, coordinates responses, and regulates bodily functions.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that promotes rest and recovery by slowing the heart rate and increasing digestion.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Spinal Cord

A bundle of nerves within the central nervous system that transmits messages between the brain and the rest of the body.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and activating the fight-or-flight response.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Addiction

A condition in which continued drug use leads to dependence and withdrawal symptoms when the substance is not consumed.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses by increasing heart rate and energy levels.

Agonist

A substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter, increasing neural activity.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The concept that a neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, pleasure, and reward.

Depolarization

The process in which a neuron's charge becomes more positive, leading to the possibility of an action potential.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs, such as alcohol, that slow down neural activity and bodily functions.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural pain relievers and contribute to feelings of well-being.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter that increases the likelihood of an action potential occurring in a neuron.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity and promotes relaxation.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, protect, and assist neurons by providing structure, insulation, and waste removal.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger and regulates appetite.

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs, such as marijuana, that alter perception and cognition.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands that influence behavior and mental processes.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter that decreases the likelihood of an action potential occurring in a neuron.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, often found in reflex arcs.

Leptin

A hormone that helps regulate energy balance and suppress appetite.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the central nervous system to muscles and glands, enabling movement.

Myasthenia Gravis

A disorder caused by disruptions in neural transmission, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disorder caused by damage to the protective covering of neurons, leading to impaired communication between the brain and body.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate using electrical impulses and chemical neurotransmitters.

Neurons

Nerve cells responsible for transmitting information throughout the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons and influence behavior and mental processes.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, alertness, and the stress response.

Opioids

Psychoactive drugs, such as heroin, that act as pain relievers by mimicking endorphins.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with bonding, social connection, and trust.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter brain function, affecting perception, mood, and behavior.

Refractory Period

The brief time after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway involving sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons that enables rapid, automatic responses to stimuli.

Reuptake

The process in which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them, stopping their activity.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A substance that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their activity in the synapse.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not actively firing, maintaining a negative charge inside the cell.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry information from the sensory organs to the central nervous system.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite.

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs, such as caffeine and cocaine, that increase neural activity and alertness.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Tolerance

A condition in which a person requires increasing amounts of a drug to experience the same effect.

Withdrawal

The physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using an addictive drug.

Amygdala

A structure in the limbic system involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Aphasia

A condition caused by damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area, leading to difficulties in speech production or comprehension.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to rewire and create new connections, allowing for adaptation and recovery after injury.

Brain Stem

The part of the brain responsible for basic functions such as breathing and heart rate, including the medulla.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

Cerebellum

A brain structure involved in coordination, balance, and procedural learning.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, divided into two hemispheres, responsible for higher cognitive functions.

Corpus Callosum

A band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres, allowing communication between them.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A brain imaging technique that records electrical activity to study brain function.

Executive Functioning

Higher-order cognitive processes controlled by the prefrontal cortex, such as decision-making and problem-solving.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to detect brain activity.

Frontal Lobes

Brain regions involved in higher-order thinking, executive function, and movement, containing the motor cortex.

Hippocampus

A structure in the limbic system responsible for memory formation and spatial navigation.

Hypothalamus

A structure in the limbic system that regulates homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Limbic System

A network of brain structures, including the hippocampus and amygdala, involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Medulla

A part of the brain stem that regulates automatic functions like breathing and heart rate.

Motor Cortex

A region in the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement.

Occipital Lobes

Brain regions located at the back of the head responsible for processing visual information.

Parietal Lobes

Brain regions involved in processing sensory input and spatial awareness, containing the somatosensory cortex.

Pituitary Gland

A gland in the brain that regulates hormones and controls other endocrine glands.

Prefrontal Cortex

The front part of the frontal lobe involved in decision-making, reasoning, and personality.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A network in the brain stem that regulates alertness, attention, and arousal.

Somatosensory Cortex

A region in the parietal lobe responsible for processing touch and bodily sensations.

Split-Brain Research

Studies on patients with a severed corpus callosum, revealing differences in specialization between brain hemispheres.

Temporal Lobes

Brain regions involved in auditory processing and language comprehension.

Thalamus

A structure that acts as the brain's sensory relay center, directing information to the appropriate areas of the cortex.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe responsible for speech comprehension.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A theory that suggests dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Circadian Rhythm

The body's internal biological clock that regulates sleep and wake cycles over a 24-hour period.

Consciousness

The state of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and surroundings.

Consolidation Theory

A theory proposing that sleep helps strengthen and organize memories.

Hypnogogic Sensations

Brief sensory experiences, such as falling or floating, that occur as a person transitions into sleep.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early.

Jet Lag

A disruption of the circadian rhythm caused by rapid travel across time zones, leading to sleep disturbances.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which sleep helps to strengthen and store new memories.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder marked by sudden and uncontrollable sleep episodes during wakefulness.

NREM Sleep (Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep)

The stages of sleep (Stages 1-3) that involve slower brain waves and minimal dreaming, decreasing in duration as the night progresses.

Paradoxical Sleep

Another term for REM sleep, in which brain activity resembles wakefulness, but the body remains highly relaxed and immobile.

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase after periods of REM sleep deprivation.

REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep)

A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreaming, and increased brain activity.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A condition in which a person physically acts out dreams due to a lack of normal REM muscle paralysis.