Human A and P Exam 1 Study Guide

anatomical position

The body is labeled in mirror image. For example, when looking at a picture of the heart, the left atria and ventricle are on your right. Always erect, feet shoulder width apart, arms at side, palm up.

anatomy

study of body structure

autopsy

a thorough examination of a corpse in order to determine the cause of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present

cadaver

A dead body used for scientific study.

CT scan

computer tomography; refined X-ray. Doughnut-shaped machine sends off X-rays from all directions to a specific level of the body translating to a detailed, cross-sectional picture of each body region

cytology

the study of cells

distal

Farther from the trunk or point of attachment.

dorsal

toward the back

embryology

Study of early developmental stages.

frontal plane

a longitudinal plane; divides into anterior and posterior

histology

study of tissues

homeostasis

dynamic state of equilibrium; provides stability; ex. body temp, hydration, respiration, blood pressure

inferior

below or toward the feet

lateral

away from the midline

medial

toward the midline

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging; produces high-contrast images of soft tissues. The body is subjected to magnetic fields which excites the hydrogen molecules in our body. The energy is released and translated into a visual image. More water = more energy = clearer visualization

negative feedback

homeostatic control mechanism; A à B à C —│ A; the response shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity; ex. body temp (the body is cold triggering warming mechanisms like shivering and blanching until the body temp rises and these mechanisms are halted)

pathology

study of disease

PET scan

positron emission tomography; observes metabolic processes. The patient is given an injection of radioisotopes tagged to biological molecules (glucose). Radioisotopes are absorbed by highly metabolic areas (brain) and gamma rays are emitted, producing a live-action image of biochemical activity.

physiology

study of body function

positive feedback

homeostatic control mechanism; the response enhances the original stimulus; A à B à C à A; usually control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments; amplifying, waterfall effect; ex. giving birth and blood clotting

proximal

closer to the trunk or point of attachment

sagittal plane

a plane that runs longitudinally; divides into right and left; midsagittal

serosa

thin membrane lining body cavities

sonography

ultrasound; high frequency sound waves cause echoes when they reflected and scattered by body tissues. These echoes are used to construct an outline. Not useful for visualizing air-filled organs or organs encased in bone.

superior

above or toward the head

systemic

pertaining to the whole body

transverse plane

a plane that runs horizontally; divides into superior and inferior; cross sections

ventral

toward the front

x-ray

a shadowy negative of internal structures. Dense structures absorb the most and appear light, hollow areas absorb less and appear dark. Best at looking at bones and locating dense abnormalities like tumors or TB nodules.

acid

Substance that donates hydrogen ions (H+).

amino acids

subunits of proteins; amine group attached to carbon attached to carboxylic acid and a side group that varies; 20 types

anion

negatively charged ion

atom

basic unit of matter

atomic mass

Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

atomic number

Number of protons in an atom.

base

Substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+).

buffer

a compound that maintains a solution’s pH; NaOH and HCl are common

carbohydrate

organic molecule composed of sugars

cation

a positively charged atom; one that has lost one or more electrons

covalent bond

a bond between two elements in which electrons are shared

denaturation

disruption of a protein’s structure  disruption of function; often due to heat or binding

disaccharide

two unit sugars; includes sucrose, lactose, maltose

electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle.

enzyme

proteins that cause reactions to occur or catalyze the reaction

hydrogen bond

a weak attraction between the positive pole of one covalently-bonded, polar molecule and the negative pole of another polar molecule

ion

charged particle

ionic bond

a bond between two elements in which one element gives up one or more electrons and the other element accepts those electrons, thereby creating two ions

lipid

Fatty molecule, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

monosaccharide

single unit sugars; includes glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose

neutron

Neutral subatomic particle.

non polar molecule

a molecule that contains atoms of relatively equal size, therefore there is no clustering of electrons and no establishment of positive and negative “poles”

nucleic acid

DNA or RNA, carrying genetic information.

oxidation number

Number representing electrons lost or gained.

pH scale

Measures acidity or alkalinity.

Phospholipid

Lipid with a phosphate group; major cell membrane component.

polar molecule

a molecule that contains a covalent bond, usually between a larger atom and a smaller atom; unshared electrons cluster near the larger atom creating a negative “pole” thereby
establishing a positive “pole” at the opposite end of the molecule

polysaccharide

multi-unit complex carbs; includes starch, glycogen, cellulose

primary structure

the actual chain of amino acids

protein

polymer of amino acids

proton

Positively charged subatomic particle.

quaternary structure

the functional protein composed of multiple protein chains; 3D

secondary structure

when the chain forms sheets and/or helices

solute

Substance dissolved in a solvent.

solvent

Substance that dissolves the solute.

steroid

Lipid molecule with a ring structure.

substrate

the compound that the enzyme acts upon

tertiary structure

the entire protein chain with multiple regions of sheets and/or helices

triglyceride

Fat molecule made of glycerol and three fatty acids.

valence electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell.

active transport

Movement of substances against a gradient, requiring energy.

anaphase

Phase of mitosis where chromosomes move apart.

benign

non-cancerous growth

cell membrane

Selectively permeable barrier of cells.

centrioles

Organelles involved in cell division.

chromatin

DNA and protein complex in the nucleus.

cilia

Hairlike structures for movement or sensing.

cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division.

cytoplasm

intracellular fluid/matrix; suspends organelles

desmosomes

Cell junctions that anchor cells together.

diffusion

Passive movement of particles from high to low concentration.

DNA

genetic material of cells

endocytosis

cellular engulfing of materials

exocytosis

cellular expulsion of material

flagella

one or two per cell; sperm is the only example in the human body; propelled by ATP pump at the base

gap junctions

Channels allowing communication between cells.

gene

a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein

golgi apparatus

packages, modifies, and segregates proteins

hypertonic

Higher solute concentration outside the cell.

hypotonic

Lower solute concentration outside the cell.

intermediate filaments

insoluble woven rope of keratin; most stable fiber; attach to
desmosomes for cell —> cell adhesion strength/resistance

interphase

Cell phase for growth and DNA replication.

isotonic

the solution inside and outside of the cell have equal solute concentrations

lysosome

site of intracellular digestion; acidic pH

peroxisome

site of intracellular digestion; enzymatic breakdown

malignant

a tumor that is aggressive, seeking out blood or lymph in order to travel to another site in the body and establish growth; invasive and dangerous

metaphase

Phase of mitosis where chromosomes align in the center.

metastasis

the spread of cancerous cells through blood or lymph

microfilaments

Thin cytoskeletal fibers.

microtubules

largest diameter; hollow tubes of tubulin; radiate from centrioles; determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles