General approach to reseach determined by the kind of question it hopes to answer
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Descriptive Research Strategy
Focusses on individual variablesIntended to answer questions about the specific state of individual variables for a specific group of individuals
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Linear Relationship
Data points produced by the changing values of two variables form a straight-line pattern
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Curvilinear Relationship
consistent, preictable relationship between two variables but with a curved line
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Positive Relationship
increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by increases in the other
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Negative Relationship
increases in one varabile tend to be accompanied by decreases in the other
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Correlational Research Strategy
Only attempts to describe the relationship, not explain itEach variable is measured with numerical scores
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Experimental Research Strategy
Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variablesConducted with rigourous control to ensure unambiguous demonstration
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Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy
Answer cause-and-effect questions about the relationship between two variables but can never produce unambiguous explanationUses some rigor and control but has a flaw
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Non-Experimental Research Strategy
Attempts to demonstrate relationship between variables but does not attempt to explain itNo rigor and control, no cause-and-effect explanation
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Difference between Correlational and Non-experimental research
3 Aspects of a Research Study (decisions to be made)
Group vs individualSame indiviuals vs different individualsNumber of variables included
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Research Strategy
General approach and goals of a research study. Determined by the question to be addressed and the answer you hope to obtain
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Research Design
General framework for conducting a study/ implimenting a research strategy
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Research Procedure
Exact, step by step description of a specific research study
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External validity
the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in the study
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Threat to external validity
characteristics that limit the ability to generalize the results
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3 types of generalization
from sample to general populationfrom one research study to anotherfrom research study to real-world situation
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Internal validity
produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship betweeen two variables
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Threat to internal validity
any factor that allows for an alternative explanation
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Threats to generalizing across participants or Subjects
Threats to generalizing across features of the measures
SensitizationGenerality across response measuresTime of measurement
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Extraneous variable
any variable in a study other than the specific variables being studied
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Confounding variable
an extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the two variables being studied. Produces an alternative explanation for the observed relationship (threat to internal validity)
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Participant variable/Individual Differences
personal characteristics that differ from one individual to the next (height, weight, gender, age, IQ, personality)
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Time Related Variable
variables that change as time goes by
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Experimenter Bias
Experimenters expectations or personal beliefs influence the findings of a study
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Double-blind and Single-Blind studies
minimize the potential for experimenter bias
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Experimental Research Strategy Elements
Manipulation: Researcher manipulates one variable to create a set of two or more treatment conditionsMeasurement: Second variable is measured to obtain a set of scores in each treatment conditionComparison: Scores in one condition are compared to the scores in another. Consistent differences mean that the manipulation caused the changesControl: All other variables are controlled to ensure they do not influence the variables being examined
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Independent variable
Variable manipulated by the researcher
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Treatment condition
Situation or environment characterized by one specific value of the manipulated variable. Experiment contains 2 or more
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Levels
Different values of the independent variable
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Dependent variable
Variable observed for changes to assess the effect of manipulating the independent variable
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Extraneous variables
All variables in the study other than the independent and dependent variables
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third-variable problem
relationship between two variables is coincidental not causational
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Directionality problem
the existence of a relationship does not always explain the direction of the relationship
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Manipulation
Identifying the specific values of the independent variable to be examined and creating treatment conditions to do so
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Confounding variables
third variable that is allowed to change systematically along with the two variables being studied
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Randomization
use of random process to help avoid a systematic relationship between two variables
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Random assignment
the use of random process to assign participants to treatment conditions
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Random process
all possible outcomes are equally likely
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Experimental condition
conditions in which the treatment is administered
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Control condition
the condition in which the treatment is not administered
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no-treatment condition
condition in which participants do not receive the treatment being evaluated
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placebo effect
positive response by a participant to an inert medication that has no effect on the body. they think the medication is effective
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placebo control condition
participants receive a placebo instead of actual treatment
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manipulation check
additional measure to assess how the participants perceived and interpreted the manipulation and/or assess the direct effect of the manipulation
creation of conditions within an experiment that simulate or closely duplicate the natural environment in which they occur
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Mundane realism
Superficial, usually physical, characteristics of the simulation, which probably have little positive effect on external validity
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Experimental realism
The psychological aspects of the simulation
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Field study
research conducted in a place the participants percieve as the natural environme
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method of tenacity
information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.
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method of intuition
information is accepted on the basis of a gut feeling
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method of authority
a person relies on information or answers from an expert on the subject
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method of faith
variant on method of authority - unquestioning trust in authority figure, Accept information from authority w/o doubt or challenge
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rational method / rationalism
seeks answers by use of logical reasoning
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premise statements
describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
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argument
set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield to a conclusion
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empirical method
uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
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inductive reasoning
using a small set of specific observations as basis for forming a general statements about larger set possible observations
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variables
characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals e.g. weather/ economy/ personal health - or - weight /height/personality between people
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hypothesis
statement that describes a relationship between or among variable: A proposal not final answer
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deductive reasoning
uses a general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific
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scientific method
method of acquiring knowledge. that uses observations to develop a hypothesis, then uses hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making systematic observations. typically a cycle
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Quantitative research
based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores
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Qualitative research
based on making observations that are Summarized + interpreted in a narrative report.
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participants
human individuals who take part in research
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subjects
non-human individuals who take part in research
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Impact Factor
measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year
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research confederate
pretend to be a participant but part of the research team
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In a true experiment…
the researcher must manipulate an independent variable while controlling all variables other than independent + dep. variables
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active deception
commission
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between groups design
Participation is randomly assigned to the study conditions
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within groups design
Participation is exposed to the different levels of the independent variable
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passive deception
omission
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when using deception
the benefit must outweigh the risk
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theory
summarizes and organizes observations + inferences. provides tentative explanations for phenomena. + provides a basis for making predictions.
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Scientific method step 1
posing a question
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Scientific method step 2
Developing procedures to answer questions
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Scientific method step 3
planning for + then making appropriate empirical observations
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Scientific method step 4
rationally interpreting empirical observations
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Scientific method step 5
using interpretations to predict other events
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theory requirements
must be falsifiablesolid empirical baseparsimonious
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Questions in Research
Form a statement that needs an answerIdentify general topic areaLook for relationships between variables
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Common sources of research ideas
Scholarly literaturemodify an existing studydiscussion section at research reportpersonal interests / curiositiescasual observations.practical problems / questionsbehavioural theories
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Hypothesis
a statement about relationships between variables
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A hypothesis shows:
A relationship existsA cause + effect explanationLimitations fer relationshipRelationship depends an definition of variables
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Mistakes in forming a hypothesis
Lack of interesttoo easy or hardtoo broadstay with first ideainadequate literature on topic
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Basic Questions
aim to increase our scientific understanding of phenomena
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Applied Questions
seeks to identify solutions to current problems
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Basic Research
research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or rather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.
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Applied Research
intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.
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Primary source
firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individuals who actually conducted the research and made the observations
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Secondary source
a description or summary of another person’s work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.
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Characteristics of a good hypothesis
LogicalTestable – all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observedRefutable – can be demonstrated to be false. Possible for the outcome to be different than the predictionPositive
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Theory
set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.Help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables.Generates predictions about the behavior
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Constructs
hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory
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Operational Definition
a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and measurement of the hypothetical construct
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