(f) The Communist party dealing with opposition

How did Mao use promises to different groups to consolidate power in the early years?

Mao promised disaffected groups what they wanted to gain support, then broke the promises once his power was secure:

• Peasants → land redistribution

• Workers → higher living standards

• Minorities → autonomy

• Intellectuals → freedom

• Businessmen → private ownership

The CPPCC included members of the Democratic League to give the appearance of political inclusiveness.

What were Mao’s initial priorities after 1949, and how did he implement them?

Mao’s first priority was eliminating remaining GMD resistance and establishing political control over all of China. The PLA was sent into the GMD heartland of Guangdong and far-west provinces that had been independent from Beijing since 1912.

What was the scale and impact of Mao’s internal wave of terror in 1950–51?

While Mao intervened in the Korean War, he also launched a wave of terror against Party enemies:

• Began in rural areas (Oct 1950), spread to cities (Apr 1951)

• 1–2 million deaths

• Even those sympathetic to the revolution had to learn slogans and ideology to avoid suspicion

• Forced labor camps (laogai) awaited many who failed to comply.

What were the major campaigns targeting different groups in early Communist China?

• 1951 – “Three Antis”: over 1 million government servants sacked

• 1952 – “Five Antis”: targeted the business community

• 1955: agricultural collectivisation ended peasant land ownership

• 1956: private businesses nationalised

• 1957 – Hundred Flowers Campaign: targeted intellectuals

What happened during the reunification campaigns in Guangdong in 1949–50?

Guangdong, the GMD heartland with Guangzhou as its capital, surrendered to the PLA just two weeks after the PRC was declared. However, fighting continued in the far south and far west until the end of 1950, as some Nationalist forces still resisted.

How did the CCP secure Xinjiang during the reunification campaigns (1949–50), and why was it important?

Xinjiang, the westernmost province, was 80% Uyghur (mostly Muslim) and had been a Qing conquest (1880s); the Russians had developed it as a potential buffer.

The CCP secured it through conquest and negotiation:

• Local Uyghur leaders given key posts in the regional council

• PLA captured Urumqi at the end of 1949

• Long March veteran appointed to lead local CCP and army

• Han Chinese settlers brought in for construction

Xinjiang became a security buffer zone for the PRC.

How did the CCP bring Tibet under control during the reunification campaigns?

Tibet, independent since 1913, planned to resist Communist rule, but was left isolated:

• India newly independent; Britain uninterested

• UN focused on Korea

• USSR allowed China a free hand

• US influence too distant

The PLA invaded in October 1950, and by May 1951 Tibet was under Chinese sovereignty.

What was the consequences of the Tibet reunification campaign?

• Han settlers brought in, Chinese lifestyle promoted, Tibetan identity suppressed

• Local resistance, backed by the CIA, led to a serious uprising in 1959, after which the Dalai Lama fled to India.

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: How did the CCP use the danwei system and household registration to control people after 1949?

Every worker was assigned to a danwei (work unit), which distributed housing, food, and clothing. Cadres issued ration cards, and denial of these was a powerful tool to enforce conformity. Household registration allowed the Party to monitor people’s lives closely and rule out any ‘nationalist sympathasers’

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: What were class labels, and how did they affect individuals under the early PRC?

Individuals were given a class label based on family background, social status, and occupation. Originally 60 categories were simplified to “red” (friend) or “black” (foe). Children inherited their household head’s status, affecting their opportunities for years.

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: How did the Party handle professionals and monitor the population?

The police monitored “bad” classes, but skilled professionals were spared if useful. Many complied via re-education classes and libraries. All information was recorded in a dossier (dangan) that followed the individual, enabling long-term surveillance.

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: What was the initial approach of the CCP to crime in cities after 1949?

Police were ordered to clean up cities by removing petty criminals and “nuisances”, often relocating them to the countryside or imprisoning them. Beggars and prostitutes were particularly targeted.

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: How did urban residents respond to the crackdown, and what challenges arose?

Many residents welcomed the clean-up after years of war, but criminals often returned once they could, and re-education camps quickly became full. Challenges increased when the PLA was demobilised, adding more people to monitor.

The use of terror against opponents of Communist rule: How did the CCP tackle organised crime, and what were the consequences?

The government targeted criminal gangs and triads, especially in Guangzhou and Shanghai. Over 150,000 criminals were arrested, and more than half were executed.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: What was the Great Terror?

On the 10th of October 1950, Mao issued a directive to liquidate 'remnant nationalist forces', 'secret agents', 'bandits' and other counter revolutionaries who stood in the path of revolution

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: Who was Tao Zhu and what role did he play in the CCP’s crackdown in Guangxi?

Tao Zhu, nicknamed “the Tank” for his ruthlessness, was sent to Guangxi province (on the Vietnam border) to enforce a clampdown. Due to lingering nationalist sympathies, he implemented brutal measures, killing over 46,000 alleged bandits in 12 months—about 2.5 per 1,000 of the population.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: What was the role of Luo Ruiging

• the head of security in Beijing

• was responsible for transmitting Mao's wishes to the provincial leaders

• Pressure from Luo led to the leader of Hubei province stepping up the killings in his area, from 220 in January 1951 to 45,000 by October

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: How did Mao influence the scale of violence during the early CCP crackdowns?

Mao suggested killing about 1 in 1,000 of the local population as a target. By allowing adjustment for local circumstances, he appeared moderate but ensured local officials made the actual decisions, making them personally implicated in the terror.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: How did Mao extend the crackdown in 1951, and what logistical problem arose?

In March 1951, Mao approved Rao Shushi’s proposal to target enemies within the CCP itself. By summer 1951, so many arrests had occurred that prisons became overcrowded, forcing a temporary halt in arrests until enough executions freed space.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: How did the CCP escalate the Terror in urban areas in 1951?

Initially, urban deaths were limited to avoid bad publicity and preserve skilled professionals. This changed after a top military official was killed at a concert in Jinan (March 1951). On 28 April, police raided 16 cities, arresting nearly 17,000 people. Confessions, executions, and a wave of suicides followed.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: How were young Party activists involved in the CCP’s campaigns of terror?

Young activists, eager to advance their careers, were forced to watch mass executions to immerse them in the revolutionary experience and ensure loyalty to the Party.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: What were the estimated death tolls from the CCP’s early years of terror?

At a 1954 Party convention, it was reported that 710,000 people had been killed, though some historians estimate the figure could be as high as two million.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: What happened to those labeled as “black” during the early CCP campaigns?

Several million were sent to labor camps or monitored by local PLA branches. Those with “black” labels became outcasts and targets of future political campaigns, and their children inherited the label, affecting their lives long-term.

The suppression of counter-revolutionaries in the Great Terror, 1950-51: How did the Terror affect everyday life and social relations in China?

Even survivors lived in fear. Widespread informing on friends made trust dangerous, so people isolated themselves. Survival often depended on having fewer close connections to reduce the risk of betrayal.

The three antis movement: What was the “Three Antis” movement (1951), and how was it perceived?

Launched late 1951, it aimed to eliminate corruption within the Party and government. Outsiders were impressed by the Party’s determination, even punishing leaders, but insiders knew that many accusations were false, and fear prevented people from defending each other.

The three antis movement: what did it target?

corruption, waste and delay in the government and Party

The three antis movement: What triggered the “Three Antis” campaign in 1951, and who oversaw it?

The arrest of Zhang Zishan and Liu Qingshan in Tianjin (Nov 1951) for embezzlement triggered the campaign. Mao insisted on their execution and appointed Finance Minister Bo Yibo to orchestrate the clean-up.

The three antis movement:How was the “Three Antis” campaign organised, and what methods were used?

Using Yanan rectification methods:

• Mass meetings where colleagues denounced managers and officials

• Guilty suspects forced to confess publicly

• Ministry of Public Security manual (“How to hold an Accusation Meeting”) guided organisers

• Small levels of corruption = “flies,” large-scale = “tigers”

• Tiger-Hunting Teams competed; by Feb 1952, Bo Yibo claimed 100,000 “tigers” captured in east China.

The five antis movement: What did it target?

The purge was widened in January 1952, to become the 'five antis' movement against bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, fraud and economic espionage

The five antis movement: How were workers and Party activists involved in the “Three Antis” denunciations, and what was the experience of accused officials?

Party activists encouraged workers to accuse employers of crimes. Denunciation boxes sped up the process. Accused victims had almost no chance of clearing; confessions were often coerced. Example: Robert Loh, a cotton mill manager, was locked in a bare room for four days until he made a confession that Party officials accepted, then publicly confessed to a crowd.

The five antis movement: What were the outcomes for victims of the “Three Antis” campaign?

According to historian Frank Dikotter:

• ~1% were executed

• ~1% sent to lifelong labor camps

• ~3% jailed for over 10 years

• The rest were fined, though fear and humiliation drove many to suicide.

The five antis movement: How did the authorities try to prevent suicide during political campaigns, and what does this reveal about the pressure people faced?

Authorities installed nets on high buildings and patrolled parks to stop people from hanging themselves, showing how widespread despair had become. Despite this, suicides still occurred, such as the Dean of the Shanghai Law College, who drowned himself due to the intense pressure and mistreatment he was experiencing.

The five antis movement: What was the purpose and economic impact of fines during the “antis” campaign?

• Destroyed the old business class by taking away wealth

• Helped finance the Korean War

• Likely disrupted normal economic activity, possibly harming the economy more than helping.

The five antis movement: What happened in the Gao Gang–Rao Shushi affair (1953), and what were its consequences?

Gao Gang and Rao Shushi were accused of factionalism and building their own power bases within the Party:

• Gao Gang committed suicide

• Rao Shushi arrested, died in jail in 1975

• The affair reinforced Mao’s authority and warned lower cadres that opposing him was dangerous, a lesson highlighted later during the Hundred Flowers campaign.

The development of the laogai system: what was the purpose of them and the reality?

The party's officiall explanation of the laogai system was that they were places of re-education rather than of punishment.

However in reality the system frightened the population into conformity and the regime relied on it.

The development of the laogai system: How did the CCP handle the massive increase in prisoners caused by the Great Terror?

China’s existing prison system couldn’t cope. Soviet experts helped set up a new labour camp system (laogai). By 1953, there were 2 million prisoners, over half forced to work in these camps.

The development of the laogai system: What was the stated purpose of the laogai system, and what was its real function?

Officially, prisoners who failed to understand Communism were to be re-educated and reintegrated as useful citizens. In reality, the laogai supplied terror, frightening the population into conformity.

The development of the laogai system: What economic role did the laogai camps play in early Communist China?

By 1955, the camps contributed 700 million yuan in industrial products and 350,000 tonnes of grain annually. During the Great Leap Forward, prisoners were used for hazardous work, such as mining and clearing malaria-infested swamps.

The development of the laogai system: What types of people were imprisoned in the laogai system?

The prison population included a cross-section of Chinese society: from poor farmers in debt to the state to technical experts accused of being counter-revolutionaries.

The development of the laogai system: What was the nature of imprisonment in the laogai system, and how fair was the process?

About 9 out of 10 inmates were political prisoners. Many worked for years before being formally charged. At the village level, farmers were imprisoned without trial. Wrongful accusations were common, but there was no way to seek redress.

The development of the laogai system: What were the prison conditions like?

• constant fear of violence

• frequent use of sleep deprivation and other forms of torture

• hard labour

• poor diet

The development of the laogai system: What was thought reform?

involved endless self-criticism and indoctrination meetings, designed to make prisoners lose their previous identity.

The development of the laogai system: How did the 1955 purge expand the laogai system, and what were its legal implications?

The 1955 purge of counter-revolutionaries added 300,000 inmates via re-education through labor, which bypassed the courts entirely. Victims were sent without trial and held indefinitely until deemed “re-educated” by police or local militia, leading to many disappearances in later years.

The development of the laogai system: What were thestatistics of deaths

May have been as high as 25 million over the whole period, 1949-76.

What happened to prisoners released from the laogai system?

Those released could rarely reintegrate into normal life, as they were often ostracised by others who feared being associated with “guilty” individuals.

The development of the laogai system: What was the “guanzhi” system, and how was it used?

Guanzhi placed convicts under the control of local cadres to perform menial tasks and act as scapegoats in public campaigns. It was used widely in rural areas; in 1953, ~740,000 people were officially under this system, likely more in practice due to local cadres’ discretion and militia support.