Ireland in the 19th Century and its Aftermath

Why did English colonisation of Ireland begin in the 16th century?

English colonisation began because King Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) turned England Protestant in 1542, while most Irish nobles remained Catholic. This created fear that Ireland could become a base for enemies of England. As a result, England started plantations to control the island.

What happened during the Ulster Plantation of 1609?

In 1609, land in Ulster was confiscated from Catholic Irish nobles and given to Anglican settlers from England and Presbyterian settlers from Scotland. This created a new Protestant majority in Ulster. By 1700 the settlers dominated Ulster, though Protestants were still a minority in Ireland overall.

What was the cause and outcome of the 1641–1652 Catholic rebellion?

The rebellion was caused by resentment toward English land confiscation and Protestant settlement. It grew into a long and violent conflict across Ireland. It ended with severe punishment of Catholics and reinforced Protestant power.

What was the significance of the Williamite War (1689–1691)?

The war ended with the defeat of the Catholic Jacobites by the Protestant forces of William of Orange in 1690. As a result, Catholic aristocrats lost their influence, and a new ruling class called the “Protestant Ascendancy” took control. This shaped Irish politics and society for more than a century.

How did the Penal Laws affect Catholics in Ireland?

The Penal Laws removed Catholic rights to vote, hold political office, enter universities, or join the army. They also made it nearly impossible for Catholics to keep large estates because Catholic land had to be divided among sons. These laws aimed to pressure Catholics to convert to Protestantism.

Why did Britain fear Irish rebellion after the French Revolution of 1789?

The French Revolution inspired ideas of liberty and republicanism, which Britain feared might spread to Ireland. Since Ireland had a large, discontented Catholic population, the British government worried about a similar uprising. This fear influenced later reforms.

What was the Catholic Relief Act of 1793, and why was it important?

The Catholic Relief Act of 1793 gave Catholics the right to vote and join the British army. However, they still could not sit in Parliament. It marked a partial relaxation of the Penal Laws but did not end inequality.

Why did the United Irishmen rebel in 1798?

The United Irishmen were inspired by the French Revolution and wanted to create an independent Irish Republic. They believed violence was necessary because peaceful reforms had failed. Their rebellion, however, was crushed.

What did the Acts of Union (1800) accomplish?

The Acts of Union created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Ireland lost its own parliament and had to send 100 MPs to Westminster. A viceroy appointed from London governed Ireland, showing unequal integration.

How did absentee landlords contribute to the conditions leading to the Great Famine?

Most landlords were Protestant and lived in England, leaving Irish Catholic tenants in poverty. Tenants relied heavily on potatoes because small plots of land made other farming difficult. This dependence made Ireland vulnerable when potato blight struck.

What caused the Great Famine (1845–1851)?

A potato blight destroyed the main food source of millions of poor Irish Catholics. Ireland continued exporting other foods, but the government did little to help. The result was mass starvation, disease, and emigration.

What was Charles Trevelyan’s view of the Great Famine?

Charles Trevelyan argued that the famine was a natural correction for an overpopulated Ireland. Influenced by Thomas Malthus, he believed government aid would only worsen dependency. Therefore, he opposed strong intervention.

What was John Mitchel’s nationalist interpretation of the Famine?

John Mitchel claimed the British government used the potato blight as an opportunity to kill Irish people. He wrote in 1861 that “the English created the famine.” His view treats the famine as deliberate genocide.

What is the modern historical interpretation of the Great Famine?

Most historians, including Peter Gray, argue that the famine was not genocide but involved “criminal neglect.” This means the British government failed to act sufficiently but did not plan mass deaths. It highlights government irresponsibility rather than intentional killing.

What were the demographic effects of the Great Famine?

About 1 million people died and 2.1 million emigrated between 1845 and 1855. This caused Ireland’s population to collapse. It also accelerated the decline of the Gaelic language.

What is the difference between constitutional nationalism and radical nationalism?

Constitutional nationalists wanted peaceful reform and self-government under the British monarchy. Radical nationalists, or physical-force republicans, wanted complete independence through violence. These two strands shaped Irish politics in the 19th century.

Why was Daniel O’Connell important in Irish history?

Daniel O’Connell led the movement for Catholic Emancipation, achieved in 1829. This allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament for the first time in over a century. Though his attempt to repeal the Act of Union failed, he inspired later nationalists.

Who were the Young Irelanders, and what happened in 1848?

Young Ireland was a radical nationalist movement seeking an Irish Republic. In July 1848 they launched a small rebellion, which quickly failed. Many leaders were imprisoned or transported to Australia.

What was the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)?

Founded in 1858 by James Stephens, the IRB was a secret revolutionary group committed to an independent Irish Republic. Although their 1867 rising failed, they remained influential. They later played a key role in the Easter Rising of 1916.

What did the Irish Parliamentary Party demand in the late 19th century?

The IPP demanded Home Rule, meaning an Irish parliament controlling local affairs but still under the UK. Founded in 1874, it became a powerful political force. Its MPs often held the balance of power in Westminster.

Why did the First Home Rule Bill of 1886 fail?

Prime Minister William Gladstone introduced it, but it split the Liberal Party. A group called the Liberal Unionists opposed Home Rule and voted with the Conservatives. The bill was defeated 341 to 311.

Why did the Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 fail?

Although it passed the House of Commons, it was rejected by the House of Lords. The Lords, dominated by Conservatives, opposed any reduction of British control over Ireland. This showed how difficult constitutional reform was.

How did the Famine contribute to the decline of the Irish language?

Because Irish speakers were mainly poor rural people hit hardest by starvation and emigration, many died or left. By 1891 only 14.5% of the population spoke Irish. English became the language of education, power, and opportunity.

Why was the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) founded in 1884?

Michael Cusack founded the GAA to revive traditional Irish sports like hurling and Gaelic football. He created rules and organized competitions. The IRB later influenced the GAA, seeing sport as training for future revolutionaries.

What was the main purpose of the Gaelic League founded in 1893?

Douglas Hyde and Eoin MacNeill founded the Gaelic League to revive the Irish language. They promoted Irish literature, conversation, and cultural pride. By 1906 it had 985 branches and about 75,000 members.

What was the Irish Literary Revival?

It was a cultural movement that used Irish myths, folklore, and themes to create national literature. Writers like William Butler Yeats and Lady Augusta Gregory played key roles. They helped redefine Irish identity.

Why was the Third Home Rule Bill suspended in 1914?

Although Parliament passed it, World War I began shortly afterwards. Unionists in Ulster threatened rebellion if it was implemented. To avoid civil war during wartime, the British government suspended the bill.

What was the Easter Rising of 23 April 1916?

It was an armed rebellion led mainly by members of the IRB. They seized parts of Dublin but were defeated within a week. The execution of their leaders increased sympathy for independence.

What was Sinn Féin’s role after 1916?

Although founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, Sinn Féin gained enormous support after the Rising. Many people wrongly believed Sinn Féin planned the rebellion, which helped the party grow. It later became the main political voice for independence.

What was the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921)?

It was a guerrilla war between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and British forces. The IRA fought for a fully independent republic. The conflict ended with a truce and the Anglo-Irish Treaty.

Why do historians debate whether Ireland was a colony or part of the UK?

Some emphasize Ireland’s long history of resisting British rule and its unequal treatment. Others note that many Irish people served in the British Empire as soldiers and administrators. Ireland had features of both a colony and an integrated region.

How did the Irish participate in the British Empire during the 19th century?

Large numbers emigrated to British colonies, worked in the Indian Civil Service, or served in the army. In 1839, 42% of the British army was Irish even though Ireland was only one-third of the UK population. This shows cooperation as well as resistance.

In what ways was Ireland different from other UK regions like Scotland and Wales?

Ireland had its own armed police force and a civil service controlled by a viceroy. It also had sharper cultural and religious divisions. These differences made full integration difficult.

What does historian Keith Jeffery argue about Ireland under British rule?

Keith Jeffery argues that Ireland had characteristics of both a colony and a part of the metropolitan core. This means it cannot be placed neatly in one category. Ireland’s situation was complex and unique.

What did Scott Cook suggest about Irish nationalism and imperialism?

Scott Cook argued that Irish nationalism and British imperialism could coexist. Some Irish people supported the empire while also wanting more autonomy for Ireland. This challenges the idea that nationalism always rejects empire.

What did the Government of Ireland Act (1920) establish?

It created Northern Ireland, made up of six Ulster counties, which stayed in the UK. It also created Southern Ireland, but Sinn Féin rejected it. This act laid the foundation for Ireland’s partition.

What was the Anglo-Irish Treaty signed in December 1921?

It created the Irish Free State with dominion status, similar to Canada or Australia. The British monarch remained head of state, but Ireland gained its own parliament and government. The treaty also allowed Northern Ireland to opt out, which it did.

Why did Sinn Féin reject the idea of “Southern Ireland”?

Sinn Féin wanted a full republic and saw “Southern Ireland” as a limited form of Home Rule still under British control. They refused to participate in its parliament. This rejection contributed to the final move toward independence.

Why did Ulster unionists oppose Home Rule?

They feared being ruled by a Catholic majority and preferred remaining part of the United Kingdom. They also identified culturally with Britain. Unionists even formed armed groups to resist Home Rule.

How did mass education and newspapers influence Irish culture in the late 19th century?

Education and cheap newspapers spread English-language culture across Ireland. This made English more useful for jobs and emigration. As a result, traditional Irish culture weakened.

What was the significance of Patrick Pearse’s role in cultural nationalism?

Patrick Pearse became editor of An Claidheamh Soluis in 1903. He used the newspaper to promote the Irish language and national pride. His later leadership in the 1916 Rising linked cultural and political nationalism.

Why did cultural nationalism matter for political nationalism?

Cultural nationalism helped define what made Ireland unique from Britain. It revived interest in language, folklore, and traditional sports. This cultural pride supported demands for political independence.

How did migration during and after the Famine affect Irish society?

Millions left Ireland, especially for the United States. This created a global Irish emigration. The population loss weakened rural areas and accelerated cultural changes.

Why did many Protestants support the union with Britain?

Protestants, especially in Ulster, feared Catholic political dominance. They also benefited from economic ties to Britain. Their identity was closely linked to British culture and the empire.

How did the Irish Parliamentary Party influence British politics in the 1880s?

The IPP won 86 seats in 1885, giving them the power to support or weaken a British government. The Liberals relied on their votes, making Home Rule a central issue. This political leverage shaped national debates.

Why did the IRB take an interest in the GAA in 1887?

The IRB saw athletic training as preparation for future military action. They believed strong athletes would make strong revolutionaries. This shows how cultural activities could have political goals.

How did the idea of Irish identity change in the 19th century?

People began asking what made Ireland distinct from England: language, culture, history, or religion. Movements like the Gaelic League promoted a unique identity. This identity became tied to nationalism.

What impact did the executions after the Easter Rising have?

The executions turned public sympathy toward the rebels. Many who had opposed the Rising now saw the British response as too harsh. This shift helped Sinn Féin win power in later elections.

How did Ireland’s political situation between 1800 and 1922 show both integration and separation?

Ireland elected MPs to Westminster, showing integration. But it kept separate police and administration under a viceroy, showing separation. This duality made Ireland’s status ambiguous.

Why did partition become the final outcome of British–Irish conflict?

Unionists in Ulster refused to join an independent or Home Rule Ireland. Nationalists refused to stay fully in the UK. The compromise was partition: Northern Ireland stayed in the UK, while the rest became the Irish Free State in 1922.