Lab week 2: Genetic inheritence

What is the basis of genetic inheritance?

The random assortment of alleles during meiosis.

How are alleles assorted during meiosis?

Two alleles for each gene are randomly sorted into gametes during metaphase I.

What does each gamete contain after meiosis?

A random combination of maternal and paternal alleles.

What happens during fertilization?

A haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg to form a diploid zygote.

How does fertilization contribute to genetic variation?

It creates a completely new combination of alleles in the zygote

How does inheritance follow a distinct pattern?

It is based on the random assortment of alleles during meiosis.

What happens if a male is heterozygous for a trait?

50% of his sperm will have the dominant allele, and 50% will have the recessive allele.

What happens if a male is homozygous dominant for a trait?

All of his sperm will carry only the dominant allele.

Does allele assortment work the same way in females?

Yes, females also randomly pass on either a dominant or recessive allele in their eggs.

What are the chances of different allele combinations if both parents are heterozygous?

25% chance of two dominant alleles (homozygous dominant)

• 50% chance of one dominant and one recessive allele (heterozygous)

• 25% chance of two recessive alleles (homozygous recessive)

What is the genotypic ratio for a heterozygous cross?

1:2:1 (Homozygous dominant : Heterozygous : Homozygous recessive).

How is a Punnett Square set up?

The parents' genotypes are placed outside the square, and the inside shows the possible allele combinations for offspring.

What is the exception to the standard inheritance pattern?

Traits on the X chromosome follow a different inheritance pattern.

Why do males and females inherit X-linked traits differently?

Females have two X chromosomes, but males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Why can't males be heterozygous for X-linked traits?

The Y chromosome lacks complementary genes for traits on the X chromosome.

Why are recessive X-linked disorders more common in males?

Males only have one X chromosome, so they fully express recessive X-linked traits inherited from their mother.

What are examples of X-linked recessive disorders?

Color blindness and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

What is the primary function of blood?

Blood functions as a vehicle, transporting gases, waste, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.

What other functions does blood have?

Blood transports cells and proteins that protect against pathogens and initiate blood clotting.

What are the four components of blood?

Plasma, red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.

What is plasma?

Plasma is a clear, straw-colored liquid that makes up 55% of blood.

What is plasma composed of?

Plasma is composed of 90% water, sugars, fats, proteins, and salts.

What is the role of plasma components in blood?

Plasma components maintain osmotic balance, buffer pH, maintain blood viscosity, transport materials, and aid in blood clotting.

What happens when a blood vessel is injured?

plasma components initiate blood clotting to prevent excessive bleeding.

What are the formed elements in blood?

blood cells and cell fragments—> make up 45% of blood.

What are the two types of blood cells?

The two types of blood cells are red blood cells (RBCs) and white blood cells (WBCs).

How many types of white blood cells (WBCs) are there?

There are many different types of white blood cells (WBCs).

What are platelets?

cell fragments present in blood.

What is another name for Plateletes

thrombocytes,

Where are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets produced?

They are produced in bone marrow.

What are red blood cells (RBCs) also known as?

erythrocytes.

What is the primary function of red blood cells (RBCs)?

RBCs carry oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.

What is the shape of red blood cells (RBCs)?

RBCs are shaped like a biconcave disk with a thin center.

Why is the shape of RBCs important?

The shape provides a large surface area for the diffusion of oxygen.

What protein do red blood cells contain?

hemoglobin.

How does iron in hemoglobin help with oxygen transport?

it combines with oxygen as the cells travel through the lungs

What happens to oxygen as red blood cells move through the body?

Oxygen is released to other body cells while RBCs move through the capillary system

Why is the flexibility of red blood cells important?

Their flexibility allows them to carry oxygen through even the smallest blood vessels.

How many red blood cells (RBCs) does a healthy male have?

A healthy male has approximately 30 trillion RBCs.

How many red blood cells (RBCs) does a healthy female have?

A healthy female has approximately 22 trillion RBCs.

What is the normal lifespan of a red blood cell (RBC)?

120 days.

Which organs remove old red blood cells (RBCs)?

The spleen and liver remove old RBCs and recycle hemoglobin.

What are white blood cells also called

Leukocytes

How do white blood cells (WBCs) compare to red blood cells (RBCs)?

White blood cells (WBCs) are considerably larger than RBCs, have nuclei, and are much less numerous.

What percentage of blood volume is made up of white blood cells?

1%

What is the primary function of white blood cells?

defend against invaders in the body, such as bacteria, parasites, fungi, and viruses.

How do white blood cells defend against foreign bodies

White blood cells can attack a foreign body directly, produce antibodies to identify and neutralize it, or trigger other cells to destroy it.

How many types of leukocytes are there?

Three: Granulocytes, Lymphocytes, Monocytes

What are granulocytes?

Granulocytes are the most abundant type of leukocyte and contain three variations: basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils.

Another name for platelets?

Thrombocytes

What are platelets, or thrombocytes?

Platelets are small pieces of cytoplasm, much smaller than RBCs, and lack nuclei.

How do platelets compare in number to white blood cells (WBCs)?

Platelets are 30-40 times more numerous than WBCs.

Where are platelets produced?

megakaryocytes located in the bone marrow.

What is the primary function of platelets?

Platelets play a vital role in coagulation, or blood clotting, when a blood vessel is injured.

What do physicians and healthcare providers regularly examine blood for?

Blood is examined to identify infections, blood cell abnormalities, and to count the various types of cells.

What is a complete blood count (CBC)?

A CBC measures the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, the total amount of hemoglobin, and examines the volume of red blood cells in whole blood (hematocrit).

High RBC levels is called

erythrocytosis

What can high RBC levels (erythrocytosis) indicate?

caused by smoking, high altitudes, dehydration, or diseases like hypoxic heart and lung disease, liver or renal tumors, or endocrine disorders.

What is low RBC levels called

Anemia

What can low RBC levels (anemia) indicate?

Due to blood loss, iron loss, vitamin deficiency, parasitic infections, sickle cell disease, or other conditions.

What is high WBC called

leukocytosis

What can a high WBC count (leukocytosis) indicate?

indicate an infection, allergies, bone marrow disease, cancer, or immune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis.

Is is low wbc count called

leukopenia

What can a low WBC count (leukopenia) indicate?

result from poisoning (lead, mercury, arsenic), infectious diseases (chickenpox, HIV), or drugs like anticancer or immunosuppressants.

What do the proteins on the surface of red blood cells function as?

The proteins on the surface of red blood cells function like identification badges, allowing the immune system to recognize the cell as a normal part of the body.

What are the surface proteins on red blood cells called?

The surface proteins on red blood cells are called antigens.

What happens if red blood cells from another person are introduced into the bloodstream?

If red blood cells from another person are introduced, their surface proteins (antigens) may be recognized as foreign, and the immune system attacks them.

What is the result of the immune system attacking foreign antigens on red blood cells?

The immune system's attack on foreign antigens results in clumping or agglutination of the blood cells.

What happens during agglutination?

n antibody protein binds to more than one antigen protein, holding them together and forming large antigen-antibody complexes.

What happens to the clumped antigens during agglutination?

The clumped antigens are immobilized and clumped together until immune cells break the cells down.

What is the "ABO System"?

The ABO System is used to classify human blood based on the presence or absence of two antigens, A and B, on the surface of red blood cells.

How do antibodies form in the ABO system?

Antibodies are already present in the plasma, unlike most cases where exposure to an antigen is needed for antibody production.

What are the characteristics of Type A blood?

Type A blood has the A antigen on the red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

What are the characteristics of Type B blood?

Type B blood has the B antigen on the red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the plasma.

What are the characteristics of Type AB blood?

Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on the red blood cells and no antibodies in the plasma.

What are the characteristics of Type O blood?

Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens on the red blood cells and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

What is the Rh factor?

The Rh factor is an antigen found on the surface of blood cells, first discovered in Rhesus monkeys.

What does it mean if an individual is Rh positive (Rh+)?

n individual is Rh-positive if they have the Rh antigen on their blood cells, which is the dominant genetic characteristic.

What is blood typing and how is it performed?

Blood typing is performed using antiserum containing specific antibodies (anti-A, anti-B, anti-Rh) to determine blood type by mixing them with a blood sample and observing agglutination.

What does agglutination in a blood typing test indicate?

Agglutination indicates a positive reaction, showing that the blood sample contains the corresponding antigen

What are the types of antisera used in blood typing tests?

Anti-A serum (contains anti-A antibodies), Anti-B serum (contains anti-B antibodies), and anti-Rh (D) serum (contains anti-Rh antibodies).

What determines the presence of antigens on red blood cells?

determined by co-dominant alleles.

What are the three alleles that determine human blood type?

The three alleles are "IA," "IB," and "i."

Which alleles are co-dominant in determining blood type?

The "IA" and "IB" alleles are co-dominant.

Which blood type allele is recessive?

The "i" allele is recessive.

How many different genotypes are possible for human blood types?

6