psych ch5

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

While we learning more about memory every day, psychologists still are unsure about what?

what parts of the brain are involved and where it is all stored.

3 retention measures/how memories can be cured

recall, recognition, relearning

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier that is not currently in your conscious awareness (ex: fill-in-the-blank test)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned (ex: multiple-choice test)

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. (ex: studying for a final exam)

recognition is easier than...

recall

information processing model

model of memory in which the human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns

three steps of the information processing model

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system. The process of getting information into the memory system

In most cases, encoding is...

automatic and happens within our awareness. other encoding, however, requires extra encoding effort called elaboration to make the memory useful.

the more time we spend learning novel information...

the more we remember

three types of encoding

semantic encoding, visual encoding, and acoustic encoding

semantic encoding

encoding of meaning

acoustic encoding

encoding of sound

visual encoding

encoding of picture images

Herman Ebbinghaus

showed that our response speed when recalling or recognizing information indicates memory strength, as does learning, using nonsense syllables.

additional rehearsal of verbal information can produce...

overlearning

we \__________ more than we recall

remember

storage

the process of retaining encoding information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

three stages of memory

sensory memory, working memory (short-term memory), long-term memory

Memories begin as what in the brain?

impulses whizzing through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace

The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called

long-term potentiation

What is the best way to remember things?

study them and sleep!

When LTP occurs, which memories are most at fault of being wiped out?

more recent ones

eidetic imagery

photographic memory. it can recall a memory in a minute detail and portray the most interesting and meaningful parts most accurately. These images can last as short as a brief moment, or as long as days. It tends to be more often in children, and seems to decline as a person's language abilities increase

Our memory works like an...

assembly line. before information can make it to our long-term memory, it must first pass through sensory memory and working memory.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously

When learning new things, do neural pathways change?

yes

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. it holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness

visual register

holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image

auditory register

holds echoes of sounds

Who created the information processing model?

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Sperling's experiment

he flashed a group of letters for 1/20 of a second. People could only recall about half the letters. When he signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy.

each sensory receptor has its own...

sensory register

working memory

a newer understanding of shirt-term memory. it is the place where we sort and encode information before transferring it to long-term memory, or forgetting it.

2 limitations of working memory

limited capacity and short duration

coping mechanisms for working memory

chunking, rehearsal

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

rehearsal

a process where information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory

in working memory, information can do what?

it can be elaborated on, or connected with, long term memories.

levels-of-processing theory

information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better

likely location for working memory

frontal cortex

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

explicit memory (declarative memory)

retention of facts and experiences that one can constantly know and "declare". requires conscious mental effort

implicit memory (procedural memory)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

divisions of long-term memory

explicit memory and implicit memory

divisions of declarative memory

episodic and semantic

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller's Magic Number

we can fit 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of memory into our working/short-term memory at a time

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

a frequent mnemonic that requires you to memorize a jingle to copy down words

hierarchies

broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

if new information is neither meaningful nor related to our experience, we have (trouble/no problem) processing it

trouble

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

which parts of the brain are for sure used in memory?

hippocampus and amygdala

consolidation

information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memory codes. neural storage of it

hippocampus

helps process for storage explicit memories of facts and events. damage to the hippocampus disrupts formation and recall of explicit memories.

amygdala's role in memory

plays a role in strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections

cerebellum role in memory

forms and stores memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia role in memory

facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

Eric Kandel

observed synaptic changes during learning in Aplysia, a sea slug. discovered that when learning occurs, Aplysia released more serotonin into certain neurons

Long-Term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

state dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

retrograde amnesia

The inability to remember information previously stored in memory

anterograde amnesia

the inability to form memories from new material

memory traces

as memories form, neurotransmitters collect at the synapses (before absolute threshold is crossed). A sharp blow to the head, or electric shock can prevent these traces from consolidating

Clive Wearing

British musician with 7-second memory due to damage to amygdala and hippocampus

a memory is implicit if it can affect behavior or mental processes without becoming fully conscious. Explicit memories always involve...

consciousness

retrieval cues

the search terms we use to activate memory. the more specific you are, the better the results will be.

ways memory can be cured

recall and recognition

we often construct memories as we encode them, and we may also do what as we withdraw them?

alter our memories

by filtering information and filling in missing pieces, our schemas do what?

direct our memory construction

as memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes (harder/easier)

easier

imagination inflation occurs because of what?

visualizing something and actually perceiving it activate similar brain areas

seven sins of memory

transience, absentmindedness, blocking, memory misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence (reasons why you may forget something)

transience

the impermanence of long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time-also known as "decay theory"

Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

absent-mindedness

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention

blocking

forgetting when a memory cannot be retreived because of interference.

proactive interference

when an old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory

retroactive memory

when a new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory

why does information presented before sleep suffer less retroactive interference?

the opportunity for interfering events is minimized