AP Biology Exam Review Flashcards

Flashcards based on a comprehensive review of AP Biology topics, designed to help students prepare for the AP Bio exam.

What is a polar molecule (like water)?

A molecule with uneven distribution of charge, allowing it to form hydrogen bonds.

What are hydrogen bonds?

Weak intermolecular bonds that form between water molecules due to water's polarity.

What makes water the universal solvent?

Water's ability to dissolve many substances due to its polarity and hydrogen bonding.

What are the key properties of water?

Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, and high specific heat.

Besides water molecules, where else are Hydrogen bonds seen?

DNA, RNA, and proteins

What is the relationship between monomers and polymers?

Monomers combine to form polymers while polymers are broken apart into monomers.

What is dehydration synthesis?

The process of combining monomers into polymers by removing water.

What is hydrolysis?

The process of breaking down polymers into monomers by adding water.

What are carbohydrates used for?

Energy storage and key structural components.

What are the different types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

What are the key functions of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?

Energy storage (monosaccharides and polysaccharides) and energy transport (disaccharides).

What are the functions of polysaccharides like starch and cellulose?

Energy storage (starch) and structural components (cellulose).

What are lipids?

Nonpolar molecules including fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.

What are the key units of lipids?

Fatty acids.

What is the state of saturated fatty acids at room temperature?

More solid at room temperature.

What is the state of unsaturated fatty acids at room temperature?

More liquid at room temperature due to bends and kinks.

What are the key functions of lipids?

Energy storage, waterproofing, membrane formation, and signaling.

What is the dual nature of phospholipids?

Hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails and hydrophilic (polar) heads.

What is a phospholipid bilayer?

A bilayer formed by phospholipids when mixed with water, with heads bonding to water and tails forming a water-free zone.

What are proteins used for?

These have diverse functions, including motion, structure, transport, energy storage, and signaling.

What are the monomers of proteins?

Amino acids.

What are the components of an amino acid?

An amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group (side chain).

What are the four levels of protein structure?

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

What is the primary structure of a protein?

Genetically determined sequence of amino acids.

What does the secondary structure of a protein consist of?

Alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets formed by interactions between amino acids in the polypeptide backbone.

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

Complex turns and loops formed by interactions between R groups through various bonds.

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

Aggregation of multiple polypeptide chains.

What are nucleic acids?

Molecules of heredity, especially DNA.

What are the key functions of RNA?

Information transfer (mRNA) and catalytic reactions (ribosomes, spliceosomes, microRNAs).

What are the components of a nucleotide?

A five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.

What differentiates DNA and RNA nucleotides?

Deoxyribose (DNA) vs. ribose (RNA) and ATCG (DNA) vs. AUCG (RNA).

What is the structure of DNA?

Double-stranded with two sugar-phosphate backbones.

What are the base pairing rules for DNA?

Adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine.

What does it mean that DNA has an antiparallel structure?

DNA has antiparallel structure with one strand running 5' to 3' and the other running 3' to 5'.

What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Size, structure, and DNA packaging.

Why are cells small?

To maximize surface area to volume ratio.

What are adaptations that increase surface area?

Gills, elephant ears, mitochondrial membrane foldings, and intestinal linings.

What is the function of the cell membrane?

Selective permeability, controlling what enters and leaves the cell.

What is the fluid mosaic model?

Phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol moving around.

What molecules are in the cell membrane?

Phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins.

What are the functions of the cell membrane's molecules?

Framework of the membrane (phospholipids), fluidity buffer (cholesterol), and transport, attachment, enzymes, signaling, and recognition (proteins).

What is diffusion?

Movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration without energy requirement.

What are the two types of passive transport?

Simple diffusion (small nonpolar molecules) and facilitated diffusion (polar molecules and ions through channels).

What is active transport?

Requires energy (ATP) to pump molecules up a concentration gradient.

What are the two forms of bulk transport?

Endocytosis (membrane buckles in) and exocytosis (vesicles fuse with membrane).

What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water from higher to lower concentration.

How does water flow in terms of tonicity?

Water flows from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions.

What two components make up water potential?

Pressure potential plus solute potential.

How do solutes and pressure affect water potential?

Adding solute decreases it, while adding pressure increases it.

What is cellular compartmentalization?

Cells have internal compartments with special pH and chemistry, allowing for different functions.

What are the components of the endomembrane system?

Nuclear membrane, rough ER, smooth ER, vesicles, Golgi, and lysosomes.

What two compartments are not part of the endomembrane system?

Mitochondria and chloroplasts.

What is the evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are endosymbionts?

They have their own circular DNA, replicate through binary fission, have bacteria-like ribosomes, perform protein synthesis, and have two membranes.

What are enzymes?

Protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions.

Where do enzymes bind with their substrates?

The active site.

How do Enzymes respond to the environment?

Changes in pH or temperature can denature them.

What does it mean for an enzyme to be denatured?

The shape of the active site changes, preventing interaction with the substrate.

What can make an enyme be inhibited?

Competitive inhibition and non-competitive inhibition.

What is competitive Inhibition?

A molecule competes with the substrate for the active site.

What is Non-competitive Inhibition?

A molecule binds to an allosteric site, changing the shape of the active site.

What is allosteric regulation used for?

Modulate the activity of enzymes.

What are metabolic pathways?

Linked series of reactions controlled by enzymes, where the product of one reaction is the reactant for the next.

What are the shapes of metabolic pathways?

Linear (glycolysis) or cyclical (Krebs cycle, Calvin cycle).

What are the two types of reactions?

Exergonic (release energy) and endergonic (require energy).

How do reactions use ATP for energy coupling?

Energy in from cellular respiration powers the creation of ATP from ADP and phosphate, which then provides energy for cellular work.

What is the process of photosynthesis?

Photoautotrophs use light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to create carbohydrates and release oxygen.

What are the two phases of photosynthesis?

Light reactions and the Calvin cycle.

What happens during the light reactions?

Light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

What happens during the Calvin cycle?

The energy in ATP and NADPH is converted into carbohydrate.

How does ATP get generated?

Proton pumps pump protons into the thylakoid space, and facilitated diffusion through ATP synthase generates ATP.

What is the outcome of the Calvin Cycle?

Carbon dioxide is converted into G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate).

What are the three phases of the Calvin Cycle?

Carbon fixation, energy investment, and regeneration of RuBP.

What is cellular respiration?

How cells take glucose and convert it into ATP.

What are the four stages of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

What are the Krebs cycle reactions doing?

They oxidize food, creating mobile electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and a small amount of ATP.

How does the electron transport chain work?

Electron carriers power an electrical current through the electron transport chain, pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space.

What is the sequestered compartment for generating energy?

The intermembrane space.

Why is Oxygen needed?

It is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.

What is anaerobic respiration?

No oxygen required, generates only two ATPs from glycolysis, and is combined with fermentation.

What is fermentation?

A process that regenerates NAD plus

How do cells communicate?

Cells communicate through direct contact or through signals (ligands).

What are the three phases of cell communication through ligands?

Reception, signal transduction, and cellular response.

What are the two types of cellular response?

Gene activation and enzyme activation.

How do steroid hormones work?

They can diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer, bind with cytoplasmic receptors, and activate genes in the nucleus.

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining internal conditions at a relatively constant optimal level.

What is feedback?

When the output of a system is also an input to the system.

How can feedback be either positive or negative?

Output quiets the system, while positive feedback accelerates changes.

How does glucose homeostasis use insulin and glucagon?

Insulin lowers blood sugar, while glucagon raises it.

What are examples of positive feedback loops?

Oxytocin and childbirth and ethylene and fruit ripening.

What are the phases of mitosis?

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.

What are the phases of interphase?

Growth one, synthesis of DNA, and growth two.

When do Cells enter into G0 phase?

When they become highly specialized, essentially leaving the cell cycle.

How can the cell cycle be regulated?

Checkpoints to ensure conditions are met for cell cycle progression, regulated externally and internally.

What causes cancer?

Mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.

What is meiosis?

Diploid germ cells create haploid sperm and egg cells with one chromosome set.

What are the phases of meiosis?

Homologous pairs are separated in meiosis one, and sister chromatids are separated in meiosis two.

What affects Meiosis?

Independent assortment, crossing over, and fertilization.

What are the three ways that meiosis and sexual reproduction generate diversity?

Independent assortment, crossing over and genetic recombination, and fertilization.

How does sex determination differ in mammals and birds?

In mammals, there is an XXXY sex determination system. In birds, there is a ZWZZ sex determination system.

What is nondisjunction?

Homologous pairs or sister chromatids do not separate correctly.