AP Psychology Unit 0: Introduction to Psychological Science

Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective

Focuses on unconscious processes and childhood experiences affecting behavior.

Evolutionary perspective

Examines how natural selection of traits promotes survival of genes.

Behavioral perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the ways in which they are learned and reinforced.

Biological perspective

This perspective in psychology emphasizes the impact of genetic, hormonal, and neurochemical processes on behavior.

Cognitive perspective

Explores how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Socio-cultural perspective

Looks at how social and cultural environments influence behavior.

Biopsychosocial perspective

Considers the combined influence of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Curiosity

A desire to learn and understand.

Skepticism

Questioning and doubting accepted ideas.

Humility

Recognition of one's own limitations and mistakes.

Critical thinking

Analyzing information and arguments logically and objectively.

Cultural norms

Shared rules or guidelines within a culture.

Cognitive biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Belief that one could have predicted an outcome after knowing it occurred.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate one's own abilities and knowledge.

Peer reviewers

Experts who evaluate and critique research before publication.

Theory

Explanation of phenomena based on observations and reasoning.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction derived from a theory.

Falsifiability

Ability of a hypothesis to be proven false.

Operational definition

Precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the results can be duplicated.

Variable

Any factor that can change and is measurable.

Participant

Individual who participates in research.

Sample

Subset of individuals selected from a population for a study.

Population

Entire group of individuals a researcher is interested in.

Representative sample

Sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Random sampling

Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants based on availability and convenience.

Sampling bias

Systematic error due to a non-random sample of a population.

Survey

Data collection tool that involves asking people questions.

Self-report bias

Participants may not provide accurate or truthful responses.

Generalizability

Extent to which research findings apply to settings or groups other than the sample studied.

Case study

In-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

Naturalistic observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Experiment

Research method involving manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect.

Correlation

Measure of the relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

Numerical representation of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

Graph that shows the relationship between two variables using dots.

Independent variable

Variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

Variable that is measured and affected in an experiment.

Confounding variable

Variable other than the independent variable that could influence the results.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Experimental group

Group that receives the treatment in an experiment.

Control group

Group that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.

Placebo

Inactive substance or treatment given to the control group.

Single-blind

Participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind

Both the researchers and participants do not know who is in the experimental or control group.

Control

Group used as a baseline to compare results.

Experimenter bias

Unconscious influence of researchers' expectations on the outcome of the study.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Representation

Degree to which the sample reflects the population.

Peer review

Process by which other experts evaluate research for quality and validity.

Institutional review

Review of research proposals for ethical considerations.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews and approves research involving human participants.

Informed consent

Participants' agreement to take part in a study after being informed of its purpose and procedures.

Informed assent

Agreement from a minor to participate in research, in addition to parental consent.

Protection from harm

Ensuring participants are not harmed physically or psychologically.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' data and identity private.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true purpose of the study after it has concluded.

Descriptive statistics

Methods used to summarize and describe the main features of a data set.

Histogram

Bar graph that represents the frequency distribution of a data set.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Mean

Average of a data set.

Median

Middle score in a data set.

Percentile rank

Percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it.

Regression toward the mean

Phenomenon where extreme scores tend to move closer to the mean over time.

Skewed distribution

Distribution that is not symmetrical and has scores that cluster to one side.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.

Standard deviation

Measure of how spread out the scores are in a data set.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped curve representing a distribution of scores.

Inferential statistics

Techniques used to determine if results can be generalized to a larger population.

Meta-analysis

Combining data from multiple studies to draw a broader conclusion.

Statistical significance

The likelihood that a study's results are not due to random chance.

Effect size

Measures the strength of the relationship between variables, indicating how impactful the findings are within a study.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable, indicating a direct connection between the two.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable, indicating an inverse connection between the two.