BIO131 final PART 1

What is the initial stage of mitosis called?

Prophase.

During which phase do chromosomes align along the equator of the cell?

Metaphase.

What structure forms at the centromere of each chromosome during prometaphase?

Kinetochores.

What happens to the nuclear envelope during mitosis?

It breaks down during prometaphase and reassembles in telophase.

What key process occurs during anaphase?

Sister chromatids are pulled apart and move towards opposite poles.

What structure is responsible for splitting the cell during cytokinesis?

A ring of myosin and actin.

What is the main difference between mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis produces 2 identical daughter cells, while meiosis results in 4 genetically different cells.

What is the function of condensins during prophase?

They assist in condensing chromosomes from chromatin.

What is the outcome of an exergonic reaction?

Energy is released to the Universe.

Such as chiasmata and crossing over, what occurs during Prophase I of meiosis?

Homologous recombination.

Which vitamins are classified as fat-soluble?

Vitamins A, D, E, and K.

What are provitamins?

Precursors to vitamins themselves.

What is the primary role of vitamin C in the body?

It acts as a potent antioxidant and is key in collagen biosynthesis.

What conditions can result from hypovitaminosis A?

Xerophthalmia, keratomalacia, and nyctalopia.

Which vitamin is synthesized in the skin upon exposure to sunlight?

Vitamin D.

What is the most common source of vitamin B12?

Animal products like meat and fish.

What is the term for the sum of all biochemical reactions in a cell?

Metabolism.

What distinguishes anabolism from catabolism?

Anabolism builds complex molecules from simpler ones, while catabolism breaks down molecules to release energy.

Which law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed?

First law of thermodynamics.

What is ATP considered in biochemical processes?

The energy currency.

What do reducing agents do in redox reactions?

They donate electrons and become oxidized.

What does the term 'endothermic' refer to in terms of reaction energy?

A reaction that absorbs energy.

What vitamin deficiency is linked to rickets?

Vitamin D.

What type of organisms are known as photolithoautotrophs?

Organisms that use light as an energy source and inorganic compounds as electron donors.

How many vitamers does Vitamin E have?

Eight vitamers.

In glycolysis, what is glucose converted into?

Pyruvate.

What type of phosphorylation occurs in glycolysis?

Substrate-level phosphorylation.

What is the primary function of vitamin K?

Blood clotting.

What is the result of glycolysis under anaerobic conditions?

Fermentation.

What is the role of cofactors in metabolic pathways?

Cofactors assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions.

Which part of the mitochondria is responsible for ATP synthesis?

Inner membrane.

What happens to chlorophyll during light absorption?

It becomes excited and donates electrons.

How many B vitamins are there in total?

There are 13 known B vitamins.

What is the stored form of vitamin A in the body?

Retinol.

What condition is characterized by bleeding gums, fatigue, and easy bruising?

Scurvy.

What are the products of aerobic respiration?

CO2 and H2O.

What is the process of breaking down glucose called?

Glycolysis.

What vitamin is essential for the synthesis of collagen?

Vitamin C.

What type of metabolism uses CO2 as a carbon source?

Autotrophic metabolism.

What is the main symptom of niacin deficiency?

Pellagra.

Where does the oxidative phosphorylation process occur in eukaryotic cells?

Mitochondria.

What are the two main types of fermentation?

Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.

What key process occurs during Metaphase I of meiosis?

Homologous chromosomes align along the equatorial plane.

Which vitamins can cause toxicity at high levels?

Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) can be toxic.

What triggers the start of anaphase in mitosis?

Destruction of the protein securin.

What is the fate of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen?

It is converted to lactate or ethanol, depending on the organism.

What is meant by 'aerobic respiration'?

Respiration that requires oxygen.

What is the term for a series of redox reactions in biological systems?

Electron transport chain.

What is the significance of Uneven distribution of Brown fat?

Brown fat aids in thermogenesis, particularly in infants.

Which water-soluble vitamin is critical for red blood cell formation?

Vitamin B12.

What happens to fat-soluble vitamins when taken in excess?

They can accumulate in the body leading to toxicity.

What is the function of NADH in cellular respiration?

It serves as an electron carrier.

What are antioxidants?

Substances that inhibit oxidation and neutralize free radicals.

What is the unit of measurement for energy in biological systems?

Joules (J).

What is photolithoautotrophy?

The use of light to produce ATP and organic molecules from CO2.

Which vitamin is essential for protein metabolism?

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine).

How does vitamin A benefit vision?

It is needed to form rhodopsin, essential for low-light vision.

What does 'catabolism' refer to?

The breakdown of complex molecules to release energy.

How many phases does meiosis consist of?

Two main phases: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

What is lipoic acid involved in within metabolic pathways?

Lipoic acid acts as a cofactor in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.

What is the difference in the final products of mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis produces two identical diploid cells; meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid cells.

What is the primary absorption site for vitamin B12?

Ileum (part of the small intestine).

What compound acts as a reducing agent during redox reactions?

NADH or reduced cofactors.

What process do photolithoautotrophs rely on to create ATP?

Photophosphorylation.

What is the role of ubiquinone in ETC?

It acts as an electron carrier within the electron transport chain.

What process can result in the generation of hydrogen ions?

Fermentation.

What happens during oxidative phosphorylation?

ATP is synthesized using energy from a proton gradient.

What mineral is essential for ATP's function?

Magnesium.

What common feature exists in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

Both processes involve the breakdown of glucose to generate ATP.

How do the laws of thermodynamics apply to metabolic processes?

Energy transformations in metabolic processes adhere to conservation laws and increase in entropy.

What happens during the reduction half of a redox reaction?

The substance gains electrons.

What is the fate of excess ascorbic acid in the body?

It is excreted in urine.

What does protein denaturation refer to?

The structural alteration of proteins leading to loss of function.

What can Vitamin A precursor β-carotene be converted into?

Retinol (Vitamin A).

What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?

ATP serves as the energy currency of the cell.

What term describes organisms that use organic compounds for energy?

Chemoorganoheterotrophs.

The end product of anaerobic respiration in yeast is?

Ethanol.

What vitamin may help with calcium absorption in the body?

Vitamin D.

What role does vitamin E play in the body?

It acts as an antioxidant, protecting cell membranes.

What metabolic state does gluconeogenesis represent?

The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.

What is the function of coenzyme A in metabolism?

It carries acyl groups in the metabolism of fatty acids and carbohydrates.

How is energy released in exergonic reactions?

By breaking chemical bonds.

Which water-soluble vitamin is important for nerve function?

Vitamin B12.

What is the common term for the negative impacts of hypovitaminosis D?

Rickets.

What is the primary source of vitamin K in the diet?

Dark green leafy vegetables.

What is the significance of the anammoxosome in bacteria?

It is involved in anaerobic ammonium oxidation, generating nitrogen gas.

What role do free radicals play in biological systems?

They can cause oxidative damage to cells.

Name a vitamin that acts as a hormone in regulating calcium.

Vitamin D.

What does the term metabolic coupling refer to?

Linking exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions to drive processes.

How do enzymes affect activation energy?

Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions.

What is the Krebs cycle primarily associated with?

It is involved in the aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Which vitamin enhances iron absorption in the body?

Vitamin C.

What key molecule is produced during the Krebs cycle?

NADH.

Which vitamin is essential for the synthesis of neurotransmitters?

Vitamin B6.

What is synthesized from pyruvate under anaerobic conditions in humans?

Lactic acid.

What compound is often used in the laboratory to stop oxidation in fruits?

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

What is a possible result of vitamin A toxicity?

Liver damage or hypervitaminosis A.

What are the characteristics of essential amino acids?

They must be obtained through diet since the body cannot synthesize them.

What is the role of plant pigments like carotenoids?

They contribute to photosynthesis and protect against oxidative stress.

How is vitamin E's antioxidant effect utilized?

By donating electrons to neutralize free radicals.