(Acid-Base, Cancer, Cells, Fluids & Electrolytes, Genetics, Stress).

What is the normal arterial blood pH?

7.35-7.45

What is the normal PaCO₂?

35-45 mmHg

What is the normal HCO₃⁻ level?

22-26 mEq/L

What is the normal PaO₂?

80-100 mmHg

What acid-base disorder has low pH and high CO₂?

Respiratory acidosis

What acid-base disorder has high pH and low CO₂?

Respiratory alkalosis

What acid-base disorder has low pH and low HCO₃⁻?

Metabolic acidosis

What acid-base disorder has high pH and high HCO₃⁻?

Metabolic alkalosis

What causes respiratory acidosis?

Hypoventilation causing CO₂ retention

What causes respiratory alkalosis?

Hyperventilation causing excessive CO₂ loss

What causes metabolic acidosis?

Diarrhea, DKA, renal failure, lactic acidosis

What causes metabolic alkalosis?

Vomiting, NG suction, excess antacids, diuretics

Which acid-base imbalance is commonly seen in COPD?

Respiratory acidosis

Which acid-base imbalance is commonly seen in panic attacks?

Respiratory alkalosis

Which acid-base imbalance is commonly seen in diabetic ketoacidosis?

Metabolic acidosis

Which acid-base imbalance is commonly seen with prolonged vomiting?

Metabolic alkalosis

What is an acid?

A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)

What is a base?

A substance that accepts hydrogen ions or releases OH-

Which organ primarily regulates CO₂?

Lungs

Which organ primarily regulates bicarbonate?

Kidneys

What does compensation attempt to do during an acid-base imbalance?

Return pH toward normal

What is the difference between compensation and correction?

Compensation helps normalize pH but does not eliminate the cause

What does PaCO₂ represent?

Respiratory component

What does HCO₃⁻ represent?

Metabolic component

What is the pH in acidosis?

Less than 7.35

What is the pH in alkalosis?

Greater than 7.45

What is the difference between a benign and malignant tumor?

Benign stays localized; malignant invades and metastasizes

Which tumors can metastasize?

Malignant tumors

What is metastasis?

Spread of cancer to distant sites

What is anaplasia?

Loss of cellular differentiation

What is dysplasia?

Abnormal cell growth that may become cancerous

What is hyperplasia?

Increase in number of cells

What is hypertrophy?

Increase in size of cells

What is atrophy?

Decrease in size of cells

What is metaplasia?

Replacement of one mature cell type by another

Which stage of cancer describes tumor spread?

Staging

Which grading system describes how abnormal cancer cells appear?

Grading

What is Stage 0 cancer?

Carcinoma in situ

What does Stage I indicate?

Localized cancer

What does Stage IV indicate?

Distant metastasis

Which lifestyle factor is the leading preventable cause of cancer?

Smoking

Which virus is strongly associated with cervical cancer?

HPV

What are common warning signs of cancer?

Weight loss, fatigue, pain, bleeding, persistent cough, lumps

What does chemotherapy target?

Rapidly dividing cells

What is the purpose of radiation therapy?

Destroy cancer cells locally

What is cachexia?

Severe weight and muscle loss due to cancer

What is angiogenesis?

Formation of new blood vessels to supply tumors

What is the powerhouse of the cell?

Mitochondria

What organelle produces proteins?

Ribosomes

What organelle modifies and packages proteins?

Golgi apparatus

What organelle contains digestive enzymes?

Lysosomes

What organelle performs aerobic metabolism?

Mitochondria

What type of metabolism requires oxygen?

Aerobic metabolism

What type of metabolism produces lactic acid?

Anaerobic metabolism

Which metabolism produces the most ATP?

Aerobic metabolism

How many ATP are produced during aerobic metabolism?

Approximately 36-38 ATP

How many ATP are produced during anaerobic metabolism?

2 ATP

What is diffusion?

Movement from high concentration to low concentration

Does diffusion require energy?

No

What is osmosis?

Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

What is filtration?

Movement due to pressure differences

What is active transport?

Movement against the concentration gradient using ATP

What is passive transport?

Movement without energy

Which transport mechanism uses ATP?

Active transport

What pump moves sodium out and potassium into the cell?

Sodium-potassium pump

What is the major intracellular cation?

Potassium

What is the major extracellular cation?

Sodium

What is the major extracellular anion?

Chloride

What is the normal sodium level?

135-145 mEq/L

What is the normal potassium level?

3.5-5.0 mEq/L

What is the normal calcium level?

8.5-10.5 mg/dL

What is the normal magnesium level?

1.5-2.5 mEq/L

What is the normal phosphate level?

2.5-4.5 mg/dL

What is hyponatremia?

Sodium less than 135

What is hypernatremia?

Sodium greater than 145

What is hypokalemia?

Potassium less than 3.5

What is hyperkalemia?

Potassium greater than 5.0

What ECG finding is associated with hyperkalemia?

Peaked T waves

What ECG finding is associated with hypokalemia?

Flattened T waves and U waves

What are symptoms of hyponatremia?

Confusion, seizures, headache

What are symptoms of hypernatremia?

Thirst, confusion, muscle twitching

What are symptoms of hypokalemia?

Muscle weakness, constipation, dysrhythmias

What are symptoms of hyperkalemia?

Muscle weakness, cardiac dysrhythmias

Which electrolyte imbalance is most likely to cause fatal arrhythmias?

Hyperkalemia

What does isotonic mean?

Same solute concentration as plasma

What does hypotonic mean?

Lower solute concentration than plasma

What does hypertonic mean?

Higher solute concentration than plasma

In a hypertonic solution, which direction does water move?

Out of the cell

In a hypotonic solution, which direction does water move?

Into the cell

What is osmolality?

Concentration of dissolved particles per kilogram of water

What is osmolarity?

Concentration of dissolved particles per liter of solution

What hormone is released by the kidneys to activate RAAS?

Renin

What hormone causes sodium and water retention?

Aldosterone

What hormone causes vasoconstriction in RAAS?

Angiotensin II

What is the overall purpose of RAAS?

Increase blood pressure and blood volume

What is an autosomal dominant disorder?

Only one abnormal gene is needed