Unit 2: Cognition (AP Psych)

perception

the process by which our brain ORGANIZES and INTERPRETS SENSORY INFORMATION

-transforms it into MEANINGFUL objects and events

crucial step in cognition
-allows us to UNDERSTAND and INTERACT with the world around us

bottom-up processing

method of MAKING SENSE OF INFORMATION by STARTING WITH SMALL DETAILS and then BUILDING UP to complete perceptions

involves taking SENSORY input and ASSEMBLING it into something we can understand, WITHOUT PRIOR KNOWLEDGE or EXPECTATIONS influencing the process

DETAILS TO BIG PICTURE

top-down processing

involved INTERPRETING SENSORY INFORMATION based on LARGER CONTEXT, PRIOR KNOWLEDGE, and EXPECTATIONS

BIG PICTURE TO DETAILS

selective attention

process of focusing on a SPECIFIC aspect of information while IGNORING OTHERS

-allows us to PRIORITIZE sensory information that’s most RELEVANT to our current goals or tasks

cocktail party effect

example of selective attention

ability to focus on a SINGLE CONVERSATION in a NOISY ENVIRONMENT while tuning out other stimuli

inattentional blindness

individual fails to notice an UNEXPECTED STIMULUS in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

change blindness

failure to notice LARGE CHANGES in one’s environment when the change occurs SIMULTANEOUSLY with a visual disruption

schemas

mental frameworks that help us ORGANIZE and INTERPRET information in the world around us based on PAST EXPERIENCES and knowledge

perceptual set

tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and IGNORE OTHERS

predisposes us to SEE WHAT WE EXPECT TO SEE

gestalt psychology

idea that we perceive WHOLE OBJECTS or figures instead of just a collection of parts

figure-ground

ability to distinguish an OBJECT from its SURROUNDINGS

binocular depth cues

visual information that requires BOTH EYES to perceive DEPTH and DISTANCE
helps us perceive the world in 3D

retinal disparity

when EACH EYE sees a SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT PICTURE because of their separate positions on our face

-brain uses this to help figure out how FAR AWAY things are

helps us see the world in 3D

convergence

when our EYES MOVE INWARD to focus on a close object

-helps us understand how CLOSE spmething is

helps with DEPTH PERCEPTION

monocular depth cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using ONE EYE

help us understand how FAR AWAY things are (depth perception)

relative clarity

depth cue
-objects that are CLEARER and MORE DETAILED are PERCEIVED as CLOSER
-objects that are HAZIER or LESS CLEAR SEEM FARTHER AWAY

helps us gauge DISTANCE and DEPTH in what we see

relative size

visual cue
-objects CLOSER to us APPEAR SMALLEr
-objects FURTHER AWAY APPEAR LARGER

brain uses this to help determing the DISTANCE BETWEEN OBJECTS and how FAR AWAY they are from VIEW

texture gradient

the way we PERCEIVE TEXTURE to BECOME DENSER and finer as it RECEDES into DISTANCE

-helps us UNDERSTAND DEPTH

linear perspective

depth cue
PARALLEL LINES APPEAR to CONVERGE as they recede into the DISTANCE

-helps brain PERCEIVE DEPTH
-allows us to judge HOW FAR AWAY objects are based on HOW LINES COME TOGETHER

interposition

visual cue

occurs when one object OVERLAPS another
-causes us to PERCEIVE the OVERLAPPING OBJECT as CLOSER

contributes to depth perception

perceptual constancies

brain’s ability to see objects as UNCHANGING, even when the IMAGE on our retina CHANGES

shape constancy

ability to perceive an object as having the SAME SHAPE, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes

size constancy

our perception that an object REMAINS the SAME SIZE, even when its DISTANCE FROM US CHANGES, causing the IMAGE ON RETINA to GROW or SHRINK

color constancy

ability to perceive COLORS of objects as STABLE under VARYING LIGHT CONDITIONS

apparent movement

perception of motion when there isn’t any actual movement

memory

persistence of learning over time
-information that has been acquired and stored and CAN be RETRIEVED

encoding

FIRST stage of memory
-perceived information is TRANSFORMED into a format that can be PROCESSED and STORED in the brain

storage

process of RETAINING INFORMATION in the brain over time

retrieval

process of accessing and BRINGING STORED INFORMATION BACK into conscious awareness

multi-store model

model that describes memory as a 3 Part System, including:

1. Sensory Memory

2. Long-Term Memory

3. Long-Terma Memory

sensory memory

INITIAL stage of memory
-where SENSORY INFORMATION is stored for a BRIEF PERIOD
-acts as a BUFFER for stimuli received through the SENSES
-retains impressions of stimuli for a FEW SECONDS at most

iconic memory

type of sensory memory
-briefly hold svisual images
-captures a PRECISE copy of visual scnee for a FRACTION of a SECOND before fading

echoic memory

type of sensory memory
-retains AUDITORY INFORMATION
-holds sounds for about 3 to 4 SECONDS
-allows brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli

short-term memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information
typically lasts about 15 to 30 seconds
limited capacity

long-term memory

stage of memory where information is STORED INDEFINITELY with a virtually UNLIMITED capacity
-allows for LONG-TERM retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts

working memory

form of short-term memory
-used for TEMPORARILY HOLDING and MANIPULATING information
short-term and long-term memories combine

central executive

control center of WORKING MEMORY
-manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory
-essential for tasks like PLANNING, PROBLEM-SOLVING, and DECISION MAKING

phonological loop

component of WORKING MEMORY
-responsible for PROCESSING and STORING VERBAL and AUDITORY INFORMATION
-consists of 2 parts:
-TEMPORARILY HOLDS WORDS AND SOUNDS for a FEW SECONDS
-REHEARSES and REFRESHES information in the phonological store through SUBVOCAL REPETITION

visuospatial sketchpad

component of WORKING MEMORY
-handles VISUAL and SPATIAL information
-allows for TEMPORARY STORAGE and MANIPULATION of IMAGES and SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS
-enables tasks like:
-navigation
-geometry
-visual tracking
-manipulating objects

long-term potentiation

long-lasting INCREASE in SIGNAL TRANSMISSION BETWEEN NEURONS that results from their simultaneous activation

effortful processing

type of MEMORY ENCODING
-requires ACTIVE WORK and ATTENTION to embed information into long-term memory
-actively focusing on and thinking about the material

automatic processing

UNCONSCIOUS encoding of information about SPACE, TIME, FREQUENCY, and WELL-LEARNED TASKS
-information is PROCESSED WITHOUT DELIBERATE ATTENTION

levels of processing model

model that proposes that the DEPTH at which information is THOUGHT ABOUT affects how well it is remembered
-argues that the DEEPER the processing, the MORE CONNECTIONS are made within the brain
-enhances the likelihood of recalling information later

shallow encoding

basic level of processing
-focuses on SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS of information WITHOUT ENGAGING WITH ITS MEANING
-involves MINIMAL ATTENTION: relies on REPETITION or SIMPLE RECOGNITION
-leads to FRAGILE MEMORIES: results in memories that are LESS LIKELY to be RETAINED over time

structural processing

type of SHALLOW PROCESSING
-focuses on PHYSICAL STRUCTURE of information

phonemic processing

type of SHALLOW PROCESSING
-focuses on AUDITORY ASPECTS of information

deep encoding

involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its MEANING and CONNECTING it to EXISTING KNOWLEDGE
-analyzes SIGNIFICANCE and IMPLICATIONS of information

chunking (grouping)

memory strategy
-involves GROUPING INDIVIDUAL PIECES of information into larger, MEANINGFUL UNITS

categories (grouping)

method of organizing information
-involves GROUPING RELATED ITEMS into CATEGORIES
-helps structure information in a more logical way

hierarchies (grouping)

method of organizing information
-involves organizing information into a system of RANKED CATEGORIES or LEVELS

mnemonics

techniques used to IMPROVE MEMORY
-help in recalling information by ASSOCIATING it with simple CUES like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes
-MENTAL SHORTCUT

method of loci

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUE
-involves associating items to be remembered with SPECIFIC PHYSICAL LOCATIONS

explicit memories

involves CONSCIOUS recall of FACTS and EXPERIENCES
-vivid details
-tied to emotions

semantic memory

type of EXPLICIT MEMORY
-involves recall of GENERAL FACTS and KNOWLEDGE about the world
-knowledge of concepts, words, symbols, and meanings
-information is INDEPENDENT of PERSONAL EXPERIENCE and CONTEXT

episodic memory

type of EXPLICIT MEMORY
-involves recollection of PERSONAL EXPERIENCES and SPECIFIC EVENTS
-remembers the WHAT, WHERE, and WHEN of past experiences
-recalled from a FIRST-PERSON POV

autobiographical memory

type of EXPLICIT MEMORY
-encompasses events and experiences from an INDIVIDUAL’S LIFE
-episodic memory: personal experiences with specific contexts and emotions
-semantic memory: general personal information and knowledge that defines self

implicit memories

type of memory does NOT REQUIRE CONSCIOUS THOUGHT
-crucial for performing everday tasks AUTOMATICALLY

procedural memory

type of implicit memory
-involves recall of HOW to perform tasks or skills AUTOMATICALLY
-includes:
-skill-based actions: driving, typing, playing an instrument, etc.
-actions performed ROUTINELY WITHOUT CONSCIOUS THOUGHT
memories built by DOING

prospective memory

remembering to perform a PLANNED ACTION or recall a PLANNED INTENTION at some future point
-remembering to perform an action triggered by specific cues (ex: giving a message when you see someone)
-remembering to perform an action at a specific time (ex: taking medication at noon)

massed practice

learning strategy
-content is studied intensely over a SHORt PERIOD without breaks
-approach may yield QUICK RESULTS
-CRAMMING

spacing effect

phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are SPACED OUT over time rather than crammed into one session
-allows for better consolidation of memories

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique
-involves REPEATEDLY REVIEWING information to keep it in SHORT-TERM MEMORY
-effective for retaining information TEMPORARILY

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique
-involves DEEP PROCESSING of information by ADDING MEANING or CONNECTING it to EXISTING KNOWLEDGE
-promotes STRONGER, more lasting memory STORAGE by LINKING NEW INFORMATION to PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

retrieval cues

-stimuli that help BRING PREVIOUSLY LEARNED INFORMATION TO MIND
-play a critical role in memory retrieval

external cues

ENVIRONMENTAL factors or objects that trigger memories

internal cues

thoughts or feelings associated with the original learning that trigger memories

recall

type of memory retrieval
-involves accessing information WITHOUT the aid of CUES
-retrieve information from memory SPONTANEOUSLY

recognition

type of memory retrieval
-involves IDENTIFYING information when it’s presented
-includes:
-familiarity: sensing that something has been encountered before
-identification: matching new information with stored knowledge

context-dependent memory

-when you remember information better in the SAME ENVIRONMENT where you FIRST LEARNED it
-physical surroundings (ex: being in the same room as you studie)
-similar conditions (ex: same background noises or smells)

state-dependent memory

-phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the SAME STATE of CONSCIOUSNESS as they were when the memory was formed
-physical state (ex: being tired or energetic)
-emotional state (ex: being happy or sad)

mood-congruent memory

-tendency to recall information that is CONSISTENT with one’s CURRENT MOOD
-can lead to SELECTIVE RECALL of memories that REINFORCE ONE’S MOOD

serial position effect

tendency to REMEMBER items at the BEGINNING and END of a list BETTER than those in the MIDDLE

primacy effect

cognitive phenomenon
-where individuals tend to remember items presented at the BEGINNING of a list better than those that follow
-items presented first can be REHEARSED MORE as the list continues, which allows them to be MORE DEEPLY ENCODED into long-term memory

recency effect

cognitive phenomenon
-where MOST RECENTLY PRESENTED items in a list are RECALLED MORE CLEARLY and ACCURATELY than the items in the middle
-items at the end of a list are still in short-term memory at the time of recall, which makes them more accessible

testing effect

phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information through testing

metacognition

-the AWARENESS and UNDERSTANDING of one’s OWN THOUGHT PROCESSES, especially in relation to learning and memory
-self-monitoring: assessing one’s own learning and memory processes, such as knowing when one knows something or not
-self regulation: adjusting strategies to improve learning and recall, like choosing to review material more thoroughly if understanding is not clear

the forgetting curve

graphical representation of the rate at which MEMORY FADES OVER TIME
-memory loss is FASTEST SOON AFTER LEARNING

encoding failure

-when information DOES NOT ENTER LONG-TERM MEMORY due to INADEQUATE PROCESSING at the the time of encoding
-failure to focus adequately on the material PREVENTS FORMATION of STRONG MEMORY TRACES

proactive interference

occurs when OLDER MEMORIES INHIBIT the ability to learn and REMEMBER NEW INFORMATION
-more likely to occur when the old and new information are similar

retroactive interference

occurs when NEW LEARNING IMPAIRS the RECALL of PREVIOUSLY ENCODED information

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

common memory experience
-occurs when an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it

source amnesia

inability to remember WHEN, WHERE, or HOW previously learned information has been ACQUIRED while retaining the factual information
LOST CONTEXT

anterograde amnesia

memory disorder
-characterized by an INABILITY to FORM NEW MEMORIES following the onset of the amnesia
-memories from BEFORE EVENT remain INTACT

retrograde amnesia

memory disorder
-involves the LOSS of MEMORIES FORMED BEFORE the onset of amnesia
-individuals can STILL LEARN NEW information and CREATE NEW MEMORIES

infantile amnesia

-phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the EARLY YEARS of life
-typically before 3 to 4 years old
-attributed to the ongoing development of the brain’s memory systems (specifically hippocampus and prefrontal cortex)

alzheimer’s disease

progressive neurological disorder
-leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

repression

-distressing thoughts and memories are UNCONSCIOUSLY BLOCKED from entering conscious awareness
-serves to protect individual from psychological distress by keeping painful memories out of the conscious mind
NOT FORGETTING, BUT PROTECTING

constructive memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively CONSTRUCTED
-new memories can be integrated with existing memories and influenced by prior experiences, knowledge, and beliefs DURING MEMORY CONSOLIDATION

misinformation effect

happens when new, INCORRECT INFORMATION INFLUENCES our MEMORY of PAST EVENTS
-new details can distort or replace parts of the original memory
-people may remember the FALSE INFORMATION INSTEAD of what actually happened

imagination inflation

imagining an event that never occurred can increase confidence that it did occur

executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out GOAL-DIRECTED behaviors and experience CRITICAL THINKING

prototypes

mental image
-best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts
SOMETIMES NOT ACCURATE

assimilation

-cognitive process of fitting NEW INFORMATION into EXISTING SCHEMAS
-simplifies new information
-makes it easier to understand and remember by INTEGRATING it with what is ALREADY KNOWN

accomodation

-cognitive process of MODIFYING EXISTING SCHEMAS or CREATING NEW ONES in response to new information
-allows for MORE ACCURATE UNDERSTANDING of the world by ADJUSTING SCHEMAS when they no longer fit with new information

convergent thinking

cognitive process
-focuses on finding a SINGLE CORRECT SOLUTION to a problem by applying LOGICAL steps

divergent thinking

cognitive process
-used to generate CREATIVE IDEAS by exploring MANY POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

functional fixedness

cognitive bias
-limits a person to using an object ONLY in the way it’s TRADITIONALLY USED
-restricts problem-solving by HINDERING THE ABILITY TO SEE ALTERNATIVE USES for familiar objects

algorithms

step-by-step procedures of formulas for solving problems that GUARANTEE a CORRECT SOLUTION

heuristics

mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb”
-simplify decision-making by REDUCING the COGNITIVE BURDEN
-speed up problem-solving and decision-making processes, especially under conditions of UNCERTAINTY
-efficient, but may lead to biases or errors in judgements

representativeness heuristic

cognitive shortcut
-individuals make judgments about the PROBABILITY of an EVENT under uncertainty based on how much it RESEMBLES EXISTING STEREOTYPES or TYPICAL CASES