Liberal views on human nature knowledge flashcards

Liberals share an optimistic view of human nature, based upon an assumption that our behaviour is determined by rational interest rather than irrational emotions and prejudice. We are therefore …

governed by reason and should be entrusted with as much freedom as possible.

The liberal belief that humans are rational creatures holds several implications. It promotes the view that …

 we are free to choose our own path in life regardless of what society dictates as the ‘norm’. Liberals firmly believe that we should be allowed to express ourselves fully as guided by our own free will. 

Through the power of reason, open and free debate and a measured discussion of views and opinions, society will progress and consensus will emerge. In large part this harks back to …

self-interest and a belief that everyone in society ultimately shares similar, and reasonable, goals. There is then no problem or challenge too great for human reason to overcome. 

Liberalism also embraces a high level of idealism. This optimistic view of human nature contrasts with political beliefs structured around a God-ordained natural hierarchy such as …

the feudal system and an absolutist monarchy. It also differs from the pessimistic view of humanity espoused by thinkers often on the right wing of politics who are influenced by the notion of original sin.

In certain schools of Christian thought, this emphasises the innate sinfulness of humanity …

a concept often termed ‘total depravity’.

Humans, being inherently sinful creatures, cannot save or help themselves; politically this means the need for a leader figure to save them from themselves. Liberalism also rejects …

 the notion of fatalism - God/Allah wills it. By contrast, liberals believe humans shape their own destiny, both individually and as a society.

Liberals believe that human nature is inherently:

• Rational and reasonable

• Capable of progress using the gift of reason

• Equipped to progress and develop, in an atmosphere of open debate and toleration

• Free of the need for an overarching, all-powerful authority figure

One area of difference among liberals over human nature is that classical liberals believe strongly that human beings are essentially self-seeking and self-reliant. The modern liberal view of human nature, by contrast, is more …

rounded, seeing humankind as more sociable and willing to pursue higher goals collectively rather than as individual pleasure seekers. 

Individualism lies at the heart of liberalism - and as a concept fits best into the area of human nature - although it has major implications for how the state, society and economy function too. The belief in…

the supreme importance of the individual grew out of the ancient and mediaeval era idea that the people were not seen as individuals, but instead merely as members of social groups they belonged to - based on religion, family, village, class etc.

 In some Oriental societies focused on Confucianism there is still this belief of …

community over the individual, and this is seen in Islamic societies too. 

In Europe in the Enlightenment period, rational and scientific explanations displaced traditional religious theories. At the same time, an interconnected, human society was increasingly …

seen from the viewpoint of each human being as an individual, with personal and distinctive qualities and characteristics. As a result, people were encouraged ,perhaps for the first time in history, to think for themselves and see themselves as unique and sovereign individuals.

As Immanuel Kant wrote, individuals should see themselves as ‘ends in themselves’ rather than the previously held view, that …

a person only had value for what they could bring to their religion, family, community, wider society or the state.

However, liberals are divided about what individualism actually ‘looks like’ in practice and the degree to which …

the focus on the individual can or should relegate other ideas, such as community and society.

Classical Liberals - Egotistical Individualism

Classical liberals have often seen society as nothing more than a collection of individuals, with each one working to …

fulfil only their own needs and interests. This version of society is known as ‘atomisation’. In this view, effectively society doesn’t really exist. Instead the world is made up of self-sufficient individuals. The individual is egotistical (self interested), self-seeking and largely self-reliant.

Since all other humans are also egotistical and self-seeking, some would worry that this could lead to conflict and social chaos. Classical liberals counter this with their other views on human nature …

that mankind is rational and tolerant and therefore people will cooperate to resolve differences. They will also respect others’ differences and others’ desires for their own individual freedoms.

Modern Liberals - Developmental Individualism

Modern liberalism takes a different approach to individualism compared to classic liberals. They adopt a more optimistic view, known as developmental individualism. Classic liberals agree that …

humans are driven by egotism, but argue this is tempered by a shared sense that society exists and it matters. Therefore individuals will feel a sense of social responsibility towards others - especially toward those who cannot look after themselves.

Since Liberals value individualism above all else, it therefore follows that they also consider freedom an absolute essential too. Individual liberty is a prerequisite for a person to be able to …

enjoy their own life choices and be ‘themselves’.

All liberals - regardless of strand - see this as an essential element. Freedom is viewed by liberals as a ‘natural right’ ie. one given to all humans simply by the …

virtues of having been born (either given by God, or for the non-religious, just an inalienable right of being human - which later led to the development of the idea of universal human rights). 

Liberals however accept there needs to be some limits to freedoms. Therefore they reject ‘licence’ - the belief one should be able to do anything you want to. Licence they believe, would …

 lead humans to abuse other humans. Instead the liberal thinker John Stuart Mill in On Liberty [1859] stated the core liberal position - that people should be free to do whatever they want, provided it does not harm anyone else. This is known as the ‘harm principle’. Not only is harming someone else wrong, but it also denies them freedom, and thus is unacceptable.

Classical and modern liberals have rival concepts about the nature of liberty. These have fundamental implications for the role of the state in society. For classical liberals the state’s role is to be minimalists - ‘the government that governs least is best’. For modern liberals …

they want an active interventionist state, acting to boost the individual’s capacity to be the ‘best version’ of themselves they can be.

Classical Liberals - Negative Freedom (i)

Classical liberals see freedom in terms of the absences of any constraints on a person’s actions by the state. This is called ‘negative freedom’ - it is the freedom from control by others. In this way …

 there should be a very minimal government and state apparatus, and instead people should be allowed to live as they choose. There should be minimal taxation, and very few attempts to organise society. 

Classical Liberals - Negative Freedom (ii)

For classic liberals like John Stuart Mill, ‘self regarding’ actions which cause oneself harm are fine, eg. taking drugs, not wearing seat belts etc. This is a matter of individual choice. The idea of …

complete individual sovereignty over oneself regardless of self-harm, is an example of libertarianism - an extreme form of liberalism with the focus on minimising external control as a means to maximise human freedoms. 

Modern Liberals - Positive Freedom (i)

However, modern liberals differ in their viewpoint. Freedom is still absolutely central, but they argue that in order for people to enjoy ‘true freedom’, they need to live in conditions that allow freedom to be possible. As such, they reject classical liberalism’s idea of …

negative freedom. Instead they believe in ‘positive freedom’ - where the state intervenes in societies and people’s lives, in order to ensure there are the conditions in place so every individual can maximise their potential in order to have a fulfilling life. 

Modern Liberals - Positive Freedom (ii)

In the way the state should play a role in society, by eg. ensuring people pay tax to fund children’s free education provision, or by having rules to stop employers exploiting their workers. This will mean every individual will have the chance to realise a decent life for themselves and only if they have the conditions to live a decent life, can they be free. There is no freedom in poverty or ignorance. Modern liberals accept …

 such state intervention takes some individual freedom eg. their wealth through tax, but in return the state can ensure everyone - not just the successful - has the capacity to be truly free. John Rawls sums this up saying every human is entitled  to the widest possible level of liberty - but only when it is consistent with the idea of ‘a like liberty for all’.

The liberal belief in maximising the freedom of, and minimising the control over, the individual, stems from a belief in humans capacity for reason and rationality. Rationalism can be defined in philosophy as …

the belief that knowledge flows from reason and experiment, not from mere self-experience or instinct. When people act rationally, they will be guided by reason and evidence, not by impulse or custom-driven behaviours of the past. 

Enlightenment thinking aimed to remove man from centuries of superstition and ignorance (particularly from religious dogma) and usher in an ‘age of reason’. Thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Jeremy Bentham, argued that …

humans freed from the intellectual constraints of the past, could blossom into rational, thinking creatures, capable of defining and pursuing their own interests (not all allowed the same dignity to women or non Western Europeans)

Liberals do not have a utopian view of human nature. They accepted mankind will always be flawed and fallible. Unlike socialists or anarchists, they don’t think people can be made ‘perfect’, but they do think they can be improved. As such …

 they reject the conservative approach to human imperfection, which is paternalism, where authority is exercised from above to guide, support and if necessary compel people as to the right way to act - based on the idea of a stern but kindly father’s relationship to his children. For liberals, humans in their ‘best condition’ are perfectly capable of rational behaviour and self-sufficiency.

Liberals accept that conflict will occur between individuals in society, as egotistical individuals battle for scarce resources. However …

they believe such conflicts can be settled through rational debate and negotiation, where ideas and solutions can be discussed, evaluated and concluded upon for fairness. In this way conflict can be settled peacefully and harmoniously

Therefore they reject socialism and anarcho-collectivism assumptions that conflict will not occur, but also reject …

conservatives’ approach that conflict is inevitable and can only be controlled by state authority, laws, rules and restrictions on human nature. 

Liberals see force or violence as a last resort, when all options for reason and compromise have been exhausted. In this case, force could be justified provided it was done only out of self-defence or as means of …

countering oppression. This is seen in the international relations theory of liberalism in global politics, belief in the role of IGOs like the UN to facilitate rational debate and compromise, but reserving the use of force in limited circumstances

Liberals see human history as a story of progress and evolution. Gradually humanity has improved, moving from a world of fear and survival where freedom was limited by material need (hunter-gatherer societies) to one of …

ignorance and superstition (ancient pagan religions, and unthinking adherence to modern monotheistic religions eg. Christianity and Islam), before emerging into the ‘sunlight’ of our more scientific, rational world.

Each successive generation is able to advance the totality of human knowledge and improve by learning from previous generations, and then going further. This belief illustrates why …

liberals put much emphasis on evolution, since it is the means where individuals can better themselves via self-development and if spread widely throughout society, will mean the stock level of human knowledge and understanding will grow

Liberalism promotes self-actualisation - the process of fulfilling one’s potential for a meaningful life, by realising and then achieving one’s own main goals. This journey will lead to …

 personal growth, self-awareness, authenticity and purpose. It will also enhance wellbeing as the individual drives toward achieving their highest potential.