Introduction to Biology and the Chemical Foundation of Life

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering fundamental concepts in biology, chemical foundations, functional groups, and biological macromolecules.

Biology

The study of life, from microscopic to global scales.

Science

An approach to studying and understanding the natural world, driven by inquiry.

Inductive reasoning

A type of logic where specific observations lead to discovery-based general conclusions.

Deductive reasoning

A type of hypothesis-based logic that flows from general premises to specific results.

Data

Recorded observations gathered during scientific investigations.

Qualitative data

Descriptive, non-numerical information regarding qualities or characteristics.

Hypothesis

A tentative answer to a scientific question that must be both testable and falsifiable.

Experimentation

A planned investigation designed to test a hypothesis and generate data.

Independent variable

The variable that is changed or manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The response that is measured or observed to see the effect of the independent variable.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

Control group

The group in an experiment that provides a baseline for comparison and does not receive the experimental treatment.

Model systems

Organisms, cells, or biological systems used to investigate processes that are difficult, impractical, or unethical to study directly.

Basic science

Scientific research aimed at expanding our understanding of the natural world.

Applied science

Scientific research that uses existing scientific knowledge to address specific problems.

Emergent properties

New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life due to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.

Reductionism

An approach to studying complex biological systems by breaking them down into simpler components.

Systems biology

The exploration of a biological system by analyzing the interactions among its various parts.

Prokaryotic cells

Cells that do not contain a nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells

Cells that contain a nuclear membrane surrounding their genetic material.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

The hereditary material that stores biological information used by cells to influence structure and function.

Gene

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence.

Gene expression

The process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins via transcription into RNA and translation into protein.

Genome

An organism's complete set of genetic material.

Genomics

The study of whole sets of genomes and their interactions.

Proteome

The entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell or group of cells.

Proteomics

The study of sets of proteins and their properties across entire sets.

Bioinformatics

The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate large biological data sets.

Symbiotic relationships

Close, prolonged associations between two or more different biological species.

Evolution

A genetic change in a population over time.

On the Origin of Species

The book written by Charles Darwin, published in 1859, which emphasized descent with modification and natural selection.

Matter

Anything that occupies space, has mass, and is composed of elements.

Elements

Unique forms of matter with specific chemical and physical properties that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary chemical reactions.

Compounds

Substances consisting of two or more different elements chemically combined in fixed proportions.

Trace elements

Elements required by organisms in minutely small doses, defined as less than $100\text{ mg/day}$.

Atom

The smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element.

Atomic number

The number of protons in an atom, written on the lower left of the element symbol in nuclide notation.

Mass number

The total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

Average atomic mass

The weighted average of the masses of an element's naturally occurring isotopes.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that differ in their number of neutrons.

Radioactive isotopes

Isotopes whose nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and radiation energy.

Radiometric dating

A technique used to determine the age of materials, such as rocks, based on radioactive decay.

Electron shells

Energy levels of electrons located at characteristic average distances from the nucleus of an atom.

Orbitals

3D volumes of space within an atom where an electron is most likely to be found, holding up to two electrons each.

Inert atom

An atom that is completely stable with no electron imbalance.

Chemical bonds

Energy relationships formed by the sharing or transferring of valence electrons between two atoms.

Covalent bond

A chemical bond formed when one or more pairs of electrons are shared between atoms.

Nonpolar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between atoms.

Polar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally between atoms.

Electronegativity

The measure of an atom's attraction for the electrons of a covalent bond.

Ionic bonds

Bonds formed when one or more electrons are transferred completely from one atom to another.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom loses an electron.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains an electron.

Hydrogen bond

A weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a nearby electronegative atom.

Van der Waals attraction

Weak attractions or bonds based on temporary partial charges within atoms.

Chemical equilibrium

The state in a chemical reaction where the forward and reverse reaction rates occur at the exact same speed.

Cohesion

The property of water molecules being attracted to other water molecules.

Adhesion

The property of water molecules being attracted to different non-water substances.

Thermal energy

Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.

Temperature

A measurement representing the average kinetic energy of molecules in a body of matter regardless of volume.

Heat

Thermal energy transferred from one body of matter to another.

Calorie (cal)

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of $1\text{ g}$ of water by $1\text{ }^\text{o}\text{C}$.

Evaporative cooling

The process where higher-energy molecules escape as vapor during evaporation, removing heat from the surface.

Solvent

The dissolving agent within a solution.

Solute

The substance that is dissolved in a solution.

Aqueous solution

A solution in which water serves as the solvent.

Hydration shell

The sphere of water molecules that surrounds dissolved solute particles.

Hydrophilic

Having an affinity for water; water-loving.

Hydrophobic

Having no affinity for water; water-fearing.

Molecular mass

The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule.

Avogadro's number

The number of units in one mole of a substance, equal to $6.02 \times 10^{23}$.

Molarity

A unit of concentration defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

pH

The relative measure of the hydrogen ion ($\text{H}^+$) concentration in a solution.

Acids

Substances that increase the $\text{H}^+$ concentration of a solution, causing $\text{H}^+$ to exceed $\text{OH}^-$.

Bases

Substances that decrease the $\text{H}^+$ concentration of a solution, causing $\text{OH}^-$ to exceed $\text{H}^+$.

Buffer

Substances in cells that maintain a stable pH by accepting $\text{H}^+$ ions when in excess and donating $\text{H}^+$ ions when depleted.

Ocean acidification

The process by which excess atmospheric $\text{CO}_2$ from burning fossil fuels dissolves into the oceans.

Organic chemistry

The study of carbon-containing compounds.

Hydrocarbon

An organic molecule consisting strictly of carbon and hydrogen.

Isomers

Compounds with the same number and types of atoms of the same elements, but with different structures and properties.

Structural isomers

Isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms.

Geometric isomers

Isomers that differ in spatial arrangement around a double bond.

Enantiomers

Isomers that differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon, forming non-superimposable mirror images.

Hydroxyl group (-OH)

A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom.

Carbonyl group

A functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.

Carboxyl group (-COOH)

A functional group with an oxygen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to an -OH group; acts as an acid.

Amino group

A functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; acts as a base.

Sulfhydryl group (-SH)

A functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom that helps stabilize protein structures.

Phosphate group

A functional group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms, with one oxygen attached to the carbon skeleton.

Methyl group

A functional group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms that can affect gene expression and sex hormone function.

Polymers

Long molecules consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.

Monomers

The repeating units that act as the building blocks for polymers.

Dehydration reaction

A reaction that connects monomers by removing a water molecule to build a polymer.

Hydrolysis

A reaction that breaks bonds in polymers by adding a water molecule.

Disaccharide

A molecule consisting of two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic linkage.

Polysaccharide

Macromolecules consisting of a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by linkages.

Polypeptides

Chains of amino acid monomers linked together by peptide bonds.

X-ray crystallography

A technique used to determine the 3-D structure of protein molecules.

Denaturation

The loss of a protein's native structure due to environmental changes in pH, salt concentration, or temperature.

Phosphodiester linkage

The covalent bond that connects nucleotides in a polynucleotide strand.