Biopsych Exam 4 (copy)

Tumor (Neoplasm)

A mass of cells that grows independently of the rest of the body.

Meningiomas

Tumors that grow between the meninges (the membranes that cover the CNS). They are typically encapsulated and benign.

Encapsulated Tumors

Tumors that grow within their own membrane.

Benign Tumors

Tumors that are surgically removable with little risk of further growth.

Infiltrating Tumors

Tumors that grow diffusely through surrounding tissue, making them difficult to remove completely.

Malignant Tumors

Tumors that are difficult to remove or destroy completely, and any remaining tissue continues to grow.

Gliomas

Brain tumors that develop from glial cells; they are infiltrating, rapidly growing, and the most common form of malignant brain tumor.

Metastatic Tumors

Tumors that grow from infiltrating cells carried to the brain by the bloodstream from another part of the body.

Strokes

Sudden-onset cerebrovascular disorders that cause brain damage

Infarct

The area of dead or dying tissue produced by a stroke.

Penumbra

The dysfunctional area surrounding an infarct; tissue that may recover or die in the days following a stroke.

Cerebral Hemorrhage

A type of stroke that occurs when a cerebral blood vessel ruptures and blood seeps into the surrounding neural tissue

Aneurysm

A pathological balloonlike dilation that forms in the wall of an artery at a point where the elasticity is defective.

Congenital

A condition present at birth.

Cerebral Ischemia

A type of stroke that is a disruption of the blood supply to an area of the brain

Thrombosis

The formation of a plug (thrombus) that blocks blood flow at the site of its formation

Embolism

A condition where a plug (embolus) is carried by the blood from a larger vessel to a smaller one, where it becomes lodged.

Arteriosclerosis

A condition where the walls of blood vessels thicken and the channels narrow, usually from fat deposits.

Glutamate

The brain's most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter; plays a major role in ischemia-induced brain damage via overactivation

NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) Receptors

A type of glutamate receptor heavily involved in the toxic cascade that kills neurons during cerebral ischemia.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Brain damage caused by a blow to the head.

Closed-head TBIs

Traumatic brain injuries where the skull is not penetrated.

Contusions

Bruises on the brain caused by blood vessels rupturing when the brain slams against the inside of the skull.

Subdural Hematoma

A "puddle" of blood that accumulates in the subdural space, severely distorting surrounding neural tissue.

Contrecoup Injuries

Contusions that occur on the side of the brain opposite the side struck by a blow

Mild TBI (mTBI)

A disturbance of consciousness following a blow to the head with no evidence of structural damage; formerly called a concussion

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A condition involving dementia and cerebral scarring often observed in individuals who have experienced repeated mTBIs

Dementia

A general intellectual deterioration

Encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain resulting from an invasion by microorganisms.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges, often caused by bacteria and potentially fatal

General Paresis

The syndrome of mental illness and dementia that results from a syphilitic infection of the brain

Toxic Psychosis

Chronic mental illness produced by a neurotoxin.

Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)

A motor disorder, often a side effect of antipsychotic drugs, characterized by involuntary smacking and sucking movements of the lips and thrusting of the tongue.

Down Syndrome

A neuropsychological disorder caused by a genetic accident where there are three chromosome 21s, leading to characteristic disfigurement, intellectual disability, and other complications

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; a slow, "self-destruct" process that packages debris in vesicles to minimize damage to nearby cells.

Necrosis

Passive cell death resulting from injury; a quick process where the cell swells, breaks apart, and causes inflammation.

Epilepsy

A neurological disorder characterized by spontaneously recurring seizures generated by chronic brain dysfunction.

Convulsions

Motor seizures that often involve tremors, rigidity, and loss of balance and consciousness

Epileptic Auras

Peculiar psychological changes (e.g., a bad smell, specific thought) that occur just before a seizure, providing clues to the seizure's origin

Focal Seizure

A seizure that begins in a specific focus and does not involve the entire brain

Simple Seizures

Focal seizures whose symptoms are primarily sensory or motor, with no loss of consciousness

Complex Seizures

Focal seizures that often begin in the temporal lobes and involve compulsive, repetitive behaviors (automatisms) and often a disruption of consciousness

Generalized Seizures

Seizures that involve the entire brain.

Tonic-Clonic Seizure

A generalized seizure involving loss of consciousness, loss of equilibrium, and a violent convulsion.

Hypoxia

A shortage of oxygen supply to a tissue, such as the brain, which can cause damage during a seizure

Absence Seizure

A generalized seizure characterized by a loss of consciousness associated with a cessation of ongoing behavior, a vacant look, and sometimes fluttering eyelids.

3-per-second Spike-and-Wave Discharge

The bilaterally symmetrical EEG pattern associated with absence seizures.

Parkinson’s Disease

A progressive movement disorder of middle and old age, characterized by tremor, rigidity, and difficulty initiating movement, associated with degeneration of the substantia nigra.

Substantia Nigra

A midbrain nucleus whose neurons project to the striatum via the nigrostriatal pathway; it degenerates in Parkinson's disease

Nigrostriatal Pathway

The pathway from the substantia nigra to the striatum, which uses dopamine as its primary neurotransmitter.

Striatum

A structure of the basal ganglia that is a major target of the nigrostriatal pathway

Alpha-synuclein

A protein that forms clumps called Lewy bodies in the surviving dopaminergic neurons of Parkinson's patients.

Lewy Bodies

Clumps of alpha-synuclein protein found in the neurons of Parkinson's patients

L-dopa

The chemical precursor to dopamine; used as a treatment to alleviate the symptoms of Parkinson's disease

Deep Brain Stimulation

A treatment for Parkinson's disease involving chronic electrical stimulation of a brain structure like the subthalamic nucleus

Subthalamic Nucleus

A nucleus lying just beneath the thalamus that is a common target for deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease

Huntington’s Disease

A rare, progressive motor disorder with a simple genetic basis, always associated with severe dementia, caused by a dominant mutation in the huntingtin gene.

Huntington

The mutated dominant gene that causes Huntington's disease.

Huntingtin Protein

The protein coded for by the huntingtin gene; the mutated form is "stickier" and forms toxic clumps within cells.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A progressive disease that attacks the myelin of axons in the CNS, considered an autoimmune disorder.

Ataxia

Loss of motor coordination, a symptom of advanced MS

Epidemiology

The study of various factors (diet, location, age) that influence the distribution of a disease in the general population.

Alzheimer’s Disease

The most common cause of dementia in the elderly, characterized by neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, and neuron loss

Tau Protein

A protein that normally helps maintain neuronal structure; in Alzheimer's, it forms threadlike tangles inside neurons called neurofibrillary tangles

Beta-amyloid

A protein that aggregates into amyloid plaques in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.

Kindling Phenomenon

The progressive development and intensification of convulsions elicited by a series of periodic, mild brain stimulations.

Epileptogenesis

The development, or genesis, of epilepsy

MPTP

A neurotoxin that selectively damages the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra, creating an animal model of Parkinson's disease.

Anterograde Degeneration

The degeneration of the distal segment (the segment from the cut to the synaptic terminals) of a cut axon.

Distal Segment

The part of an axon between a cut and the axon terminals.

Retrograde Degeneration

The degeneration of the proximal segment (the segment from the cut back to the cell body) of a cut axon.

Proximal Segment

The part of an axon between a cut and the cell body.

Transneuronal Degeneration

The spreading of degeneration from damaged neurons to neurons linked to them by synapses.

Neural Regeneration

The regrowth of damaged neurons.

Schwann Cells

Glial cells that myelinate PNS axons; they clear debris and promote regeneration

Oligodendroglia

Glial cells that myelinate CNS axons; they do not promote regeneration and can release inhibitory factors.

Collateral Sprouting

The growth of axon branches from adjacent healthy axons to synapse at sites vacated by a degenerated axon.

Enriched Environments

Environments designed to promote cognitive and physical activity, shown to have health-promoting effects on the brain

Phantom Limb

The condition where amputees continue to experience sensations from a missing limb.

Learning

The process through which experience changes the brain.

Memory

The process by which these changes are stored and subsequently reactivated

Amnesia

Any pathological loss of memory

Medial Temporal Lobectomy

The removal of the medial portions of both temporal lobes, including most of the hippocampus, amygdala, and adjacent cortex

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred before the brain damage

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after the brain damage.

Short-term Memory

The storage of new information for brief periods while a person attends to it

Long-term Memory

The storage of new information once the person stops attending to it

Global Amnesia

Amnesia for information presented in all sensory modalities.

Memory Consolidation

The translation of short-term memories into long-term memories

Explicit Memories

Conscious long-term memories

Implicit Memories

Long-term memories demonstrated by improved test performance without conscious awareness

Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia

Amnesia associated with damage to the medial temporal lobes, characterized by severe anterograde amnesia for explicit memories but relatively intact implicit memory.

Repetition Priming Tests

Tests that assess implicit memory by measuring improved performance on a task due to prior exposure.

Semantic Memories

Explicit memories for general facts and information.

Episodic Memories

Explicit memories for specific moments or episodes in one's life; also called autobiographical memory.

Global Cerebral Ischemia

An interruption of blood supply to the entire brain, which can cause medial temporal lobe amnesia.

CA1 Subfield

A region of the hippocampus that is particularly susceptible to damage from cerebral ischemia.

Transient Global Amnesia

A sudden-onset temporary amnesia characterized by severe anterograde and moderate retrograde amnesia for explicit episodic memories.

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A memory disorder often associated with chronic alcoholism and thiamine deficiency, characterized by lesions in the medial diencephalon

Mediodorsal Nuclei

Nuclei of the thalamus that are often damaged in Korsakoff's syndrome