Chapter 4: States of Consciousness

Stream of Consciousness

Described by William James as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings.

The Fringe

Also described by William James, it is all of the thoughts and feelings that we have about thoughts. Known today as, Metacognition.

Consciousness

An individual’s awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of self and thoughts about one’s experience.

Awareness

The ability of perceiving the self and thoughts about one’s experiences.

Global Brain Workspace

A group of brain areas that work together to promote awareness which include the prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate (acts of will), and the association areas.

The Reticular Activating System

A network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus that regulate arousal. Damages there can leave someone unconscious.

Theory of Mind

The ability for an individual to understand that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences. Essential to have valuable social capacities like empathy and sympathy.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A neurodevelopment disorder that involves difficulties in social interactions and communication, suggesting they have a deficit in theory of mind.

Higher-Level Consciousness

A state of consciousness in which individuals are fully aware and engaged in complex thought processes, such as problem-solving and planning. This involves controlled processes and executive functions.

Controlled Processes

The most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal.

Executive Function

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

Lower-Level Consciousness

Basically automatic processes and daydreaming.

Automatic Processes

States of consciousness that require little and do not interfere with other ongoing activities. For example, sending a text in the middle of a conversation.

Default Mode Network

A network of brain regions that show increased activity during rest and is associated with self-referential thoughts and daydreaming.

Altered States of Consciousness

States of consciousness that differ significantly from normal waking consciousness. Can be produced by drugs, trauma, fever, fatigue, sensory deprivation, meditation, and even hypnosis. And drugs.

Waking Subconscious Awareness

A level of consciousness where thoughts and feelings are not immediately accessible but can influence behaviors and perceptions.

Incubation

When the problem is set aside from conscious effort and eventually leads to the solution.

Subconscious Awareness During Sleep and Dreams

A state of consciousness where thoughts and feelings arise without direct awareness, often influencing dreams and emotional processing.

No Awareness

Generally applies to someone who has been knocked out or who has fallen into a deep, prolonged unconscious state.

Unconscious Thought

Proposed by Sigmund Freud, it is a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness.

Sleep

A natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness.

Biological Rhythms

periodic physiological fluctuations in the body (rise/fall of hormones, accelerated.decelerated cycles of brain activity) that can influence behavior.

Circadian Rhythm

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve sleep/wake cycle, body temp, blood pressure, and blood sugar level.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Located in the hypothalamus, it uses the input from the retina to synchronize the circadian rhythm with dark and light. The most important for circadian rhythm.

Theories on the Need for Sleep

1. Evolutionarily, sleep protects animals by remaining inactive, harder to detect, and reducing injury from poor visibility.

2. Sleep helps conserve energy and searching for food/water is easier during the day. Prey sleep less.

3. Sleep is restorative and helps build and repair the brain, which the day wears out. Body produces more proteins in sleep to help repair. Shorter sleep is associated with stress and lowered immune function.

4. Sleep centers in the role of brain plasticity and play an important role in the consolidation of memory. Lost sleep mean lost memories.

Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation

• Decrease in activity of the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and the reward centers as well as reduced complexity of brain activity.

• Difficulty paying attention to tasks and solving problems.

Stage W

“Wake” stage, in which people produce beta and alpha waves.

Beta Waves

Brainwaves that reflect concentration and alertness with the highest frequency and lowest amplitude. These waves are more desynchronous.

Alpha Waves

Brainwaves that increase in amplitude, slow down, and become more synchronous, associated with relaxation or drowsiness.

Stage N1 (Non-REM) Sleep

Occurs when one is about to fall asleep and the person may experience myoclonic jerks (sudden movements). Involves a feeling of falling as well as being characterized by Theta waves. Light stage of sleep.

Theta Waves

Brainwaves that are slower in frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves.

Stage N2 Sleep

Muscle activity decreases and awareness of environment ceases. Theta waves are interspersed by Sleep Spindles. Light stage of sleep.

Sleep Spindles

Brief high-frequency bursts of neurons firing simultaneously which is important to memory consolidation and also plays a role in communication between hippocampus and neocortex.

Stage N3 Sleep

Characterized by delta waves and is also known as delta sleep, the point at which our brains are least like when awake; deepest sleep. Slow-wave sleep. This is when bedwetting, sleepwalking, and sleep talking occur. Confusion and disorientation when awoken.

Delta Waves

Slowest and highest-amplitude brain waves.

Stage R Sleep

REM sleep where the most vivid dreaming occurs. This is characterized by fast waves similar to those of relaxed wakefulness. Theta waves in the hippocampus. Longer REM means more likely to be dreaming.

Insomnia

Problems that involve falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking too early. 3:5 adults suffer it and more common in women and older adults. Physicians try to prescribe sleep pills, but they only last few weeks. Best to always go to bed on time; sleep in dark, quiet place; use bed only for sleeping, and take a hot bath. Behavioral changes can help with sleep (avoid naps). Psychotherapy is first treatment for chronic insomnia.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking; occurs in deepest stage of sleep. More likely to occur to those who are sleep deprived or who have consumed alcohol. Also side effect of some medications. Safe to awaken sleepwalkers.

Somniloquy

Sleep talking; but you cannot accurately converse with them since they are soundly asleep.

Nightmares

While nightmares decrease after age 6, college students have 4-8 nightmares a year. Increased nightmares likely due to increased stressors.

Night Terror

Sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear. Can have rapid heart rate, heavy breathing, loud screams, heavy perspiration, and movement. Peak between 5 and 7 years of age, less common than nightmares, and occur during slow-wave, non-REM sleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, overpowering urge to sleep. May fall asleep talking or standing. Immediately enter REM. Often tired throughout day. Triggered by extreme emotional reactions. Seems to have a problem with hypothalamus and amygdala.

Sleep Apnea

Stopped breathing because windpipe fails to open or brain processes of respiration fail. Numerous brief awakenings during sleep and they feel sleepy because they were sleep deprived. More common among infants and adults +65 years; obesity, large necks, and recessed chins. Untreated, can cause high blood pressure. Treatment through weight-loss programs, side sleeping, propping head on pillow, or wearing CPAP.

Suden Infant Death Syndrome

Sleep apnea may cause it. Common for infants with short pauses in their breathing during sleep. Experience sleep apnea episodes days before fatal event and could be due to genetics and problems regulating neurotransmitters.

Manifest Content

Derived from Freud, it is the dream’s surface content, the symbols that disguise the true meaning.

Latent Content

The true meaning of the dream. Often found by asking the dreamer about their feelings and associations with the dream symbols.

Cognitive Theory of Dreaming

Also known as Continuity hypothesis, it is a theory proposing that one can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts used in studying the waking mind. It rests on the idea that dreams are subconscious cognitive processes. Dreams are the mental simulation of our everyday lives.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A theory that suggests dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in lower part of brain and that dreams result from the brain’s attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep. The nervous system is simply cycling through random memories and experiences.

Critics say that damage to the brainstem does not reduce dreaming.

Psychoactive Drugs

Drugs that act on the nervous system to let consciousness, modify perception, and change moods. Some use it as a way to relieve themselves of life’s difficulties and others use it because they are curious.Psychoactive drugs can alter mental states, leading to changes in mood, perception, and behavior. They interact with neurotransmitter systems, affecting how the brain processes information.

Tolerance

The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect.

Physical Dependence

The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms like physical pain and craving it.

Psychological Dependence

The strong desire repeat drug use for emotional reasons like well-being and to reduce stress.

Addiction

The physical and psychological dependence on a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

Substance Use Disorder

A condition in which the use of a psychoactive drug affects their health and abilities to work and engage in social relationships.

How does the brain become addicted?

The psychoactive drugs increase dopamine levels in the reward pathways. The reward pathway is located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbent (NAc), leading to the activation of only the prefrontal areas of the brain.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that slow mental and physical activity. They include alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opiates.

Alcohol and the Brain

It goes to the VTA and the NAc. It increases the concentration of GABA which is widely distributed in the brain, like the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, amygdala, and n nucleus accumbent. It affects the area of the frontal cortex involved in judgement and impulse control. College students that bring drink have problems like missed classes, injuries, trouble with the police, and unprotected sex. Many emerging adults decrease alcohol use due to increased responsibilities.

Binge Drinkers

Those that had at least 4 or 5 drinks at one time at least three occasions in previous two weeks.

Alcoholism

A disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, and excessive use of alcohol that impairs user’s health and social relationships. 18 million in US suffer; 1/9 who drink continue to alcoholism. It could be that they are genetically unable to produce adequate dopamine, where alcohol increases the amount of dopamine. Experience also plays a role in alcoholism since many do not have close relatives with the same condition.

How is Alcoholism Stopped?

George Vaillant formulated the 1/3 rule that a third become terribly ill or die, another third are still recovering, and another third are abstinent or only drink socially. Recovery was predicted by:

1. Having a strong negative experience with drinking

2. Finding substitute dependency like meditation, exercise, or overeating

3. Developing new, positive relationships

4. Joining a support group like Alcoholics Anonymous

Barbiturates

Include Nembutal and Seconal, they are depressant drugs that decrease central nervous system activity. Once used as sleep aids, but heavy doses can lead to impaired memory and decision making. Lethal when combined with alcohol. Abrupt withdrawal can cause seizures. Replaced with tranquilizers.

Tranquilizers

Like Valium and Xanax, they are depressants that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation. Low dose = calmness; large doses = drowsiness and confusion. Addicting and tolerance in a few weeks of use. Can produce withdrawal symptoms.

Opioids

Act on the brain’s endorphin receptors and depress central nervous system activity. Include opium, its natural derivative, and chemicals. Powerful painkillers, when drugs leave brain, it becomes under-stimulated. Several hours after taking it, they feel euphoric and pain-free, with increased appetite for food and sexual activity. Risk of death high because they attach to receptors for endorphins, which involve the brainstem. This can lead them to stop breathing. Availability of opioids is a public health emergency.

Fentanyl

A fast-acting opioid prescription pain-killer that has implicated numerous overdoses, including Prince.

Opioid Overdose

• Pinpoint Pupils

• Unconsciousness

• Slowed Breathing

Immediately call 911 and bring pill bottles to help physicians.

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.

Caffeine

Overlooked as a drug, it can boost energy and alertness, but can also have some unpleasant side effects. Affects brain’s pleasure centers. Removal from diet have withdrawal symptoms like headaches, lethargy, apathy, and concentration difficulties, but subside in a matter of days.

Caffeinism

The overindulgence in caffeine and characterized by mood changes, anxiety, and sleep disruption. Occurs with people who drink ≥5 cups each day. Symptoms include insomnia, irritability, headaches, ringing ears, dry mouth, increased blood pressure, and digestive problems.

Nicotine

A main psychoactive ingredient in tobacco. It raises the brain’s dopamine. Behavioral effects include improved attention and alertness, reduced anger and anxiety, and pain relief. At high levels, muscles can relax, circulation to extremities decreases, heart rate and blood pressure increase, loss of appetite for carbs, and it passes freely through the placenta wall into amniotic fluid. Tolerance will develop.

Withdrawal can cause quick symptoms like irritability, craving, inability to focus, sleep disturbance, and increased appetite, lasting of months or longer. Tobacco leads to 1 in 5 deaths.

Vaping

Even vaping just flavors can damage the lungs, gums, and teeth. E-cigarettes have a number of chemicals like formaldehyde.

Amphetamines

Normally a stimulant to boost energy, stay awake, or lose weight (diet pills). They increase the release of dopamine.

The most insidious is crystal methamphetamine. It induces powerful euphoria, but made using battery acid, cold medicine, drain cleaner, and kitty litter. Releases excessive dopamine, results in severe come down experience (cravings), and damages dopamine receptors.

Cocaine

Comes from coca plant naive to Bolivia and Peru. Snorted or injected, it floods bloodstream and produces euphoria lasting 15-30 minutes. This rush depletes brain’s supply of neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, which leaves individual in an agitated, depressed mood. Cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake pumps in dopamine synapses like the VTA and NAc, which allows for dopamine to bind to receptors.

Crack

Potent form of cocaine that is usually smoked. So addictive that 50% of abuser return to the drug 6 months after treatment.

MDMA

Ecstasy (X, XTC, Molly) is an illegal synthetic drug (stimulant and hallucinogen). It leads to feelings of warmth, pleasure, and alertness. “Empathogen” because it causes users to feel warm bonds. Releases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Depleting serotonin produces lingering feelings of listlessness that can last for days. It impairs memory and cognitive processing. Heavy users have impairments that last for two years after abstinence. It destroys icons that release serotonin, leading to depression.

Researchers wonder if it can be used to help with psychological disorders.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelics, are psychoactive argues that modify a person’s perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real.

Marijuana

Mild hallucinogen; dried leaves and flowers from Cannabis sativa originating from Central Asia. Hashish, the dried resin. The active ingredient is THC, which does not affect a specific neurotransmitter, but affects the functioning of a variety of neurotransmitters and hormones. Effects include increased pulse rate and blood pressure, reddening eyes, dry mouth, along with a mixture of excitatory, depressive, and mildly hallucinatory characteristics. It can trigger spontaneous unrelated ideas and laughter; distorted perceptions of time and place; increased sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells, and colors; and erratic verbal behavior.

LSD

Lysergic acid diethylamide, a powerful hallucinogen in small doses. Objects cage shapes and glow; colors become kaleidoscopic and astonishing images unfold (sometimes pleasurable and sometimes grotesque). Influence sense of time in which brief glances are actually long, deep gazes that can last hours or days. Bad LSD trip can trigger anxiety, paranoia, and suicidal/homicidal impulses.

Effects include dizziness, nausea, and tremors. Primarily acts on serotonin, though dopamine also affects it. Mya cause rapid mood swings and impaired attention and memory. It is being researched as therapeutic in small doses for pain and to help deal with terminal illnesses.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.

Four Steps in Hypnosis

The hypnotist:

1. Minimizes distractions and makes person comfortable.

2. Tells the person to concentrate on something specific, like imagined scene or ticking clock.

3. Informs the person what to expect in the hypnotic state, like relaxation or a pleasant floating sensation.

4. Suggests certain events or feelings the person knows will occur or observes occurring (eyes are getting tired). When suggested things occur, it make it seem believable, making the hypnotist more suggestive and influential.

Hypnotizability

The extent to which a person’s responses are changed when they are hypnotized.

Divided Consciousness View of Hypnosis

Proposed by Hilgard, it viewed that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one following the hypnotist’s commands and the other acting as a “hidden observer.” This hidden observer may be why hypnotized individuals will not violate their moral ethics.

Social Cognitive Behavior View of Hypnosis

A perspective that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way they believe that a hypnotized person should behave.

Meditation

The attainment of a peaceful state of independence in which thoughts are not occupied by worry; the mediator is mindfully present to their thoughts and feelings but is not consumer by them. They include two characteristics: Focused attention and Open monitoring. The brain activity of meditators is different from both effortful engagement in thought and sleep or drowsiness. Involves initial increases in activation in basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex. Decrease in anterior cingulate (associated with acts of will).

Focused Attention

A type of meditation in which one’s awareness to one’s inner life and attending to one’s thoughts (Being psychologically present as one thinks).

Open Monitoring

The capacity to observe one’s thoughts as they happen without getting preoccupied by them; being able to reflect without becoming attached to a particular thought or idea.

Mindfulness Meditation

Practiced by yoga enthusiasts and Buddhist monks, this form of meditation involves maintaining a moment-by-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and the surrounding environment.

Lovingkindness Meditation

Developing loving acceptance of oneself and others. Begins with warm feelings about oneself and then moves onto others. Fosters warmth, friendliness, compassion, and appreciative joy. Heightened feelings of social connections and positive emotions.

Hypnagogic Reverie

A transitional state between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by vivid imagery and spontaneous thoughts. Meditation has been compared to this.

Reaching meditative state

■ Find a quiet place and a comfortable chair.

■ Sit upright in the chair, rest your chin comfortably on your chest, and place your arms in your lap. Close your eyes.

■ Now focus on your breathing. Every time you inhale and every time you exhale, pay attention to the sensations of air flowing through your body, the feeling of your lungs filling and emptying.

■ After you have focused on several breaths, begin to repeat silently to yourself a single word every time you breathe out. You can make a word up, use the word one, or try a word associated with an emotion you want to produce, such as trust, love, patience, happy, or lovingkindness. Experiment with several different words to see which one works for you.

■ If you find that thoughts are intruding and you are no longer attending to your breathing, refocus on your breathing and say your chosen word each time you exhale.