PSYCH WEEKS 1 -4

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered one of the founding figures of modern psychology; established the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements of consciousness and mental processes.

Functionalism

A psychological perspective that focuses on the purpose of consciousness and behavior rather than its structure.

Association for Psychological Science (APS)

An organization founded in 1988 to advance psychological science; originally known as the American Psychological Society.

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

Cognitive psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning.

American Psychological Association (APA)

The largest professional organization of psychologists in the United States, established in 1892.

Clinical psychology

A branch of psychology focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders.

The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two

A famous paper by George Miller indicating limits on how much information can be held in working memory.

Brown v. Board of Education

A landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States, completed in 1894.

Francis Cecil Sumner

The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States, achieved in 1920.

The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)

Founded in 1936, this organization focuses on the application of psychology to social issues.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population, often associated with controversial policies and movements.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first woman president of the APA, she completed her doctoral requirements at Harvard but was not awarded a degree.

Lightner Witmer

Founder of clinical psychology in America; opened a psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania.

Hugo Munsterberg

A psychologist known for applying psychology to fields such as industrial psychology and forensic psychology.

Lillian Gilbreth

A pioneering industrial psychologist known for her work in efficiency and ergonomics.

Gestalt psychology

An approach that emphasizes the human ability to perceive entire patterns or configurations, not just individual components.

John B. Watson

A prominent figure in behaviorism; advocated for psychology to be a purely scientific discipline focusing on observable behavior.

Cognitive neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field that studies the biological processes that underlie cognition.

Henry Goddard

A psychologist who brought Binet's intelligence test to the U.S. and contributed to the field of mental testing.

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered one of the founding figures of modern psychology; established the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements of consciousness and mental processes.

Functionalism

A psychological perspective that focuses on the purpose of consciousness and behavior rather than its structure.

Association for Psychological Science (APS)

An organization founded in 1988 to advance psychological science; originally known as the American Psychological Society.

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

Cognitive psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning.

American Psychological Association (APA)

The largest professional organization of psychologists in the United States, established in 1892.

Clinical psychology

A branch of psychology focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders.

The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two

A famous paper by George Miller indicating limits on how much information can be held in working memory.

Brown v. Board of Education

A landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States, completed in 1894.

Francis Cecil Sumner

The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States, achieved in 1920.

The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)

Founded in 1936, this organization focuses on the application of psychology to social issues.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population, often associated with controversial policies and movements.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first woman president of the APA, she completed her doctoral requirements at Harvard but was not awarded a degree.

Lightner Witmer

Founder of clinical psychology in America; opened a psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania.

Hugo Munsterberg

A psychologist known for applying psychology to fields such as industrial psychology and forensic psychology.

Lillian Gilbreth

A pioneering industrial psychologist known for her work in efficiency and ergonomics.

Gestalt psychology

An approach that emphasizes the human ability to perceive entire patterns or configurations, not just individual components.

John B. Watson

A prominent figure in behaviorism; advocated for psychology to be a purely scientific discipline focusing on observable behavior.

Cognitive neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field that studies the biological processes that underlie cognition.

Henry Goddard

A psychologist who brought Binet's intelligence test to the U.S. and contributed to the field of mental testing.

William James

An influential American psychologist and philosopher, recognized as one of the founders of functionalism.

Sigmund Freud

The founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.

Psychoanalysis

A school of thought and a therapeutic technique developed by Sigmund Freud, focusing on the role of unconscious drives and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Humanistic psychology

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person, focusing on concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Key figures include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning, demonstrating that learning can occur through association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Learning

A process through which experience causes a relatively permanent change in knowledge, skills, or behavior.

Perceptual Learning

Improvement in the ability to respond to sensory stimuli as a result of experience (e.g., recognizing The Rock’s face faster due to repeated exposure).

Implicit Learning

Unintentional acquisition of knowledge (e.g., learning to ride a bike as a child). Happens without conscious effort.

Implicit Memory

Demonstrating prior learning unintentionally (e.g., being able to ride a bike again years later).

Explicit Learning

Intentional and conscious effort to learn information (e.g., studying for an exam).

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of specific facts or experiences (e.g., remembering a specific bike ride).

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. Requires attention.

Consolidation

The stabilization of a memory trace after initial acquisition — occurs during the time between learning and recall.

Retrieval

Bringing stored information back to mind when needed (e.g., recalling facts during a test).

Working Memory

System for temporarily holding and manipulating information for reasoning and problem solving.

Short-Term Memory

Limited-capacity store for information (5–9 items, around 20–30 seconds). Shown in the digit-span task).

Working Memory vs Short-Term Memory

Short-term = holding info briefly; Working = actively manipulating that info.

Motivation

Higher motivation enhances learning performance.

Organization

Structuring and connecting related ideas aids memory.

Anxiety

High anxiety impairs learning and recall (e.g., math anxiety).

Expertise

Prior knowledge improves learning in familiar domains (e.g., chess experts recall board positions better).

Incidental Learning

Learning without trying — happens passively (e.g., survival processing task).

Intentional Learning

Conscious effort to memorize information (e.g., flashcards).

Survival Processing Effect

Thinking about information in a survival context leads to better memory than intentional memorization.

Generation Effect

Better memory when you produce information yourself (e.g., filling in “fruit: or__ge”).

Enactment Effect

Performing or miming actions associated with concepts improves memory.

Production Effect

Saying words aloud improves recall.

Visual Imagery Effect

Creating mental images enhances learning.

Drawing Effect

Creating visual representations (e.g., diagrams or concept maps) boosts recall.

Spacing Effect

Studying material in spaced sessions improves long-term retention compared to cramming.

Interleaving

Mixing different topics or problem types during study improves long-term learning over blocked practice.

Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect)

Practicing recalling information strengthens memory more than rereading.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory improves when learning and retrieval conditions match (e.g., studying in a similar context as the test).

Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning

Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell + food = salivation).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned reaction to the US (e.g., salivation to food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after association with the US (e.g., bell).

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

Fear Conditioning

A type of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus is paired with something aversive (e.g., “Little Albert” experiment).

Extinction

Reduction of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and rest period.

Blocking

When a previously learned CS prevents new learning about a second stimulus because it adds no new information.

Renewal Effect

Return of a conditioned response when the context changes after extinction.

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental)

Learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences (rewards or punishments).

Reinforcer

A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., food reward).

Punisher

A stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., shock).

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur; behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that lead toward the desired behavior.

Real-World Example

Crows trained to pick up cigarette butts for food rewards — learned through operant conditioning.

Context-Dependent Learning

Memory is better when the learning and testing environments are similar (e.g., scuba divers recall better underwater if they learned underwater).

State-Dependent Learning

Memory retrieval is improved when internal states (e.g., mood, alertness) match between learning and recall.

Knowledge Emotions

Curiosity, surprise, confusion, and awe — motivate exploration and deeper learning.