Exam 6

Mischel, Walter - (1930- )

His research focused on personality formation and called into question the idea of stable personality traits.

Pavlov, Ivan - (1849-1936)

He made his conditioned reflex discovery while studying how dog saliva related to the function of the stomach. He found that when he repeatedly gave a dog food after ringing a bell, the dog began to salivate for false alarms too. The bell rang, and the dog salivated, even with no food in sight.

Piaget, Jean - (1896-1980)

He argued that children develop their thinking capacity in stages and that the progression through these stages depends on a genetically determined timetable. His research changed the way people viewed education, showing that children actively explore the world and develop their own hypotheses about what they observe.

Rescorla, Robert - (1935- )

As a modern theorist of classical conditioning, he has made numerous refinements to classical conditioning theories.

Rogers, Carl - (1902-1987)

He proposed the person-centered or client-centered theory of psychology. He asserted that people's self-concepts determine their behavior and relationships with others. He thought that a therapist's unconditional positive regard could help clients to undergo psychotherapeutic personality change.

Schachter, Stanley - (1922-1997)

Developed the two-factor theory of emotion. He believed that emotions come both from physiological stimuli and the cognitive interpretation of that stimuli.

Seligman, Martin - (1942- )

A pioneer in the field of "positive psychology," the study of what makes people happy and good, in contrast to traditional clinical psychology, which focuses on what makes people distressed.

Delayed conditioning

Presenting a CS first and then introducing the UCS while the CS is still evident. (order and timing)

Protected sleep

Belief that our ego protects us from material in the unconscious mind by presenting repressed desires in the form of symbols.

Salient

Stimuli that are easily noticeable.

Activation-synthesis theory

Theory proposing that dreams are the brain's interpretation of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.

Paradoxical sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by REM sleep where our brain waves appear as active as when we are awake.

Codeine

Powerful painkiller similar in chemical structure to opium usually prescribed for pain relief.

Equipotentiality

The idea that any animal can be taught any response.

Psilocybin

A naturally occurring hallucinogen found in over one hundred species of mushrooms.

Methadone

Powerful painkiller similar in chemical structure to opium used for the treatment of narcotic withdrawl.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking.

Blind sight

Ability of blind people to describe the path of a moving object or grasp objects they say they cannot see.

Omission training

The withdraw of a desirable stimulus. (negative punishment)

Monism

The belief that everything (thought and matter) are aspects of the same substance.

Peyote

A small cactus that causes hallucinations when ingested.

Instinctive drift

The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior.

Second order conditioning

Once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible to use that CS as a UCS in order to condition a response to a new stimulus.

Dualism

The belief that humans consist of two materials: thought (nonmaterial aspects) and matter (substance).

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters.

Role theory

Idea that hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness because some people are more easily hypnotized than others.

Anxiolytic

Depressant also known as a tranquilizer.

In the 1st half of the last century psychology defined itself as the science of behavior, but by the 1960s, what advances made it possible to relate brain activity to various mental states, such as waking, sleeping, and dreaming?

Neuroscience

What term describes our awareness of ourselves and our environment, enables us to exert voluntary control and communicate our mental states to others, and keeps us from thinking and doing everything at once?

Consciousness

In one 1999 community survey, 3 in 4 people agreed with the inaccurate claim that hypnosis enables what phenomenon that describes that people can recover accurate memories as far back as birth?

Age regression

What term describes a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur?

Hypnosis

What special dual-processing state describes a split between different levels of consciousness and may explain hypnotic pain relief?

Dissociation

Our conscious awareness is one part of dual processing and although much of our information processing is conscious, much of it is what?

All the above

What term describes a statement made during a hypnotic session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized and has helped alleviate headaches, asthma, warts and stress-related skin disorders?

Posthypnotic suggestion

What type of person in a legitimate context can induce people, hypnotized or not, to perform unlikely events?

Authoritative

Those who study hypnosis agree that its power resides not in the hypnotist but in the subject's openness to what?

Suggestions

What can reduce fear, hypersensitivity to pain, and inhibit pain-related brain activity?

Hypnosis

What is an example of a sleep function?

All answers are correct

We cycle through four distinct sleep stages every 90 minutes but what type of sleep encompasses all sleep stages except REM sleep?

NREM sleep

Our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24 hour cycle of day and night through a biological clock called what?

Circadian rhythm

As the night wears on NREM(3) sleep gets shorter and disappears, REM and NREM(2) sleep periods get longer, and we end up sending approximately how many minutes in REM sleep per night?

100 minutes

What can influence our circadian rhythm and cause some people to be evening-energized and others to be morning-loving?

Age, experience

Light adjusts our biological clock by activating light-sensitive retinal proteins that affects the pineal gland's production of what hormone

Melatonin

Respectively, what type of slow brain waves occur during the relaxed state before you fall sleep and what type of large, slow brain waves are associated with deep sleep?

Alpha, delta

Despite your motor cortex being activated during a dream and your brainstem blocking the messages, recurring paradoxical sleep (REM sleep) is characterized by vivid dreams for about how long per sleep cycle?

10 minutes

Except during scary dreams, what stage of sleep do your genitals become aroused whether or not the dream's content is sexual?

REM sleep

What type of device confirms that the brain's auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli during sleep and shows that we process most information outside our conscious awareness?

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Although most of our dreams do not contain sexual imagery, 8 in 10 dreams are marked by what?

Negative emotions

According to Freud's outdated argument, a dream's manifest content is a censored, symbolic version of what, which consists of unconscious erotic drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly?

Latent content

Why do people who sleep 7 to 8 hours typically out-live the chronically sleep-deprived?

All answers are correct

Respectively, 1 in 2000 people have which sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks that usually last for less than five minutes and which sleep disorder targets mostly children, occurs during the first few hours of NREM(3) sleep, and is seldom remembered?

Narcolepsy, night terrors

10% to 15% of adults complain of what, which is a persistent problem in falling or staying asleep?

Insomnia

What term describes a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and subsequent momentary reawakenings that are seldom remembered and is characterized by heavy snoring, high blood pressure, irritability, and exhaustion?

Sleep apnea

Respectively, how much time in an average person's lifespan do they spend sleeping and how much time in an average person's lifespan do they spend in REM dreams, which are vivid, emotional, and sometimes bizarre?

25 years, 6 years

According to sleep researcher Dement, the brain keeps an accurate count of sleep debt for at least how long?

2 weeks

What is a more recent explanation of why we dream other than the explanation by Freud?

All answers are correct

What term describes the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation?

REM rebound

The "rush" of euphoria cocaine provides lasts for approximately how long and is followed by a crash due to reuptake blockage and the resulting deprivation of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin?

15 to 30 minutes

Withdrawal is the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing an addictive drug and what term describes the need to switch off the withdrawal symptoms by taking more of the psychoactive drug?

addiction

Respectively, what type of drug is a tranquilizer that mimics the effects of alcohol and what type of depressant-narcotic includes morphine and heroin and depresses neural functioning?

Barbiturate, opiate

What term describes continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption?

Substance use disorder

What category of drugs would caffeine, nicotine, methamphetamine, and cocaine fall into, all of which excite neural activity and speed up body functions?

Stimulants

What slows the sympathetic nervous system, affects judgment and memory, shrinks the brain, reduces self-awareness, and kills more people than all illegal drugs combined?

Alcohol

What category of psychedelic drugs would LSD and marijuana fall into, all of which distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input?

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods and what term describes the diminishing effect with regular use of psychoactive drugs that requires the user to take larger doses to produce the desired high?

Tolerance, neuroadaptation

What category of drugs would alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates fall into, all of which reduce neural activity and slow body functions?

Depressants

By far, what is the most widely used stimulant that over 80% of Americans consume on a daily basis?

Caffeine

What term describes a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response?

Unconditioned stimulus

What term describes the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus?

Unconditioned response

Who is responsible for teaching us that the principles of learning apply across species, that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that conditioning principles have important practical applications?

Pavlov

What term describes the stage of classical conditioning that associates a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response?

Acquisition

Respectively, what classical conditioning term describes the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus and what term describes an originally irrelevant stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response?

Conditioned response, conditioned stimulus

What type of learning is described by a neutral stimulus signaling an unconditioned stimulus that begins to produce a conditioned response that anticipates and prepares for that unconditioned stimulus?

Bandura conditioning, observational learning
Operant conditioning, extinction conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning, classical conditioning
Skinner conditioning, operant conditioning

Because we were not born with a genetic blueprint for life, what term would describe a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience?

Learning

Respectively, what term describes the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli and what term describes the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus?

Discrimination, generalization

Associative learning, learning that certain events occur together, causes humans to learn and adapt to their environment according to what three types of learning - (1) how we expect and prepare for an event (2) how we learn to repeat acts that bring good results (3) how by watching others we learn new behaviors.

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning

Respectively, what term describes a diminishing conditioned response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus and what term describes the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus?

Extinction, spontaneous recovery

What is the opposite to that of reinforcement, is usually suppressed, is never forgotten, and can evoke undesired responses, such as anger, fear or resistance?

Punishment

Since a reinforcer is anything that increases the frequency of a preceding response, what respective type of reinforcer strengthens a response by reducing an adverse stimulus and what respective type of reinforcer strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response?

Negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement

What term describes an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal?

Shaping

What term did Thordike use to describe the phrase, "rewarded behavior is likely to recur?"

Law of effect

In real life, continuous reinforcement does not occur every time a desired response is given, therefore which partial reinforcement schedule describes reinforcers that are provided after an unpredictable amount of time?

Variable-interval schedule

Skinner described what type of associative learning that teaches subjects to associate behaviors with their consequences?

Operant conditioning

What term describes a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water?

Skinner Box, operant chamber

In real life, continuous reinforcement does not occur every time a desired response is given, therefore which partial reinforcement schedule describes reinforcers that are provided after an unpredictable number of responses?

Variable-ratio schedule

What term describes a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with the satisfaction of a biological need or primary reinforcer?

Secondary reinforcer, conditioned reinforcer

What controversial researcher said that external influences shape behavior and we should use rewards to evoke more desirable behaviors?

Skinner

In sports, the accidental timing of rewards can produce what type of behavior which may be partially reinforced over time?

Superstitious behavior

What term describes an overblown and oversold system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension?

Biofeedback

The key to shaping behavior in athletic performance is first reinforcing what and then gradually increasing the challenge?

Success

At work, managers wanting to reinforce a job well done should reward what type of behaviors?

All answers are correct

Classical conditioning involves what type of behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus we do not control?

Respondent behavior

Operant conditioning involves what type of behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli?

Operant behavior

What type of adaptive assessment uses operant conditioning principles to pace material to each student's rate of learning and to provide immediate feedback on their efforts?

Electronic assessment

What type of learning are both classical and operant conditioning?

Associative learning

How might we build up our self-control and reinforce our own desired behaviors and extinguish the undesired ones?

All answers are correct

At home, when should parents give children attention and other reinforcers?

When they are behaving well

We most easily learn and retain behaviors and associations that draw on our what?

Biological predisposition

Respectively, what term describes the perception that we control our own fate and what term describes the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate?

Internal locus of control, external locus of control

What term describes that some learning occurs after little or no systematic interaction with our environment?

Insight