HDE 100B final

What is the formal definition of Developmental Science?

"How and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time" across the lifespan, including emerging adulthood (ages 18-25).[cite: 1]

Why is developmental science considered an interdisciplinary science?

It combines ongoing insights from sociologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, statistics, and medical fields like pediatrics and psychiatry.[cite: 1]

What is Empiricism (empirical evidence) in the scientific method?

The perspective that knowledge or truth can only be understood from sensory information (seeing, hearing, touching, etc.), relying on data-based conclusions to produce knowledge and practical applications.[cite: 1]

What is the Nature-Nurture Controversy and how do they interact?

The debate over whether genetics (nature) or education/environment (nurture) is more influential; modern science dictates that nature-nurture interactions continually shape development together over time.[cite: 1]

Explain the Diathesis-Stress Model axes and outcomes.

Y-axis represents outcomes (negative/positive) and X-axis represents environment/experience (negative/positive); vulnerable individuals face poor outcomes in negative environments, while resilient individuals remain unaffected by environment quality and achieve positive outcomes.[cite: 1]

Define Differential Susceptibility using the Dandelions vs. Orchids analogy.

Dandelions are insensitive to environmental input and thrive regardless of context; Orchids are highly sensitive to their environment, thriving beautifully in supportive contexts but suffering heavily in negative ones.[cite: 1]

What is Biological Sensitivity to Context (Boyce)?

The theory that individual differences in environmental sensitivity are rooted deeply in our biology, explaining why some are highly reactive to the specific types of contexts they are exposed to.[cite: 1]

What constitutes Temperament and how does it relate to development?

Temperament is Emotional Reactivity (rapid arousal to stimuli) + Self-Regulation (controlling processes like executive functions); individual differences appear by 6 months and align with prefrontal cortex development.[cite: 1]

What are Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and their accumulation effect?

Physical, sexual, psychological abuse, neglect, or family/community dysfunction before age 18; they co-occur and accumulate, where one loss (e.g., parental loss) amplifies other risks like poverty or depression.[cite: 1]

What is the Dose-Response Association regarding ACEs?

Having 4 or more ACEs serves as the strongest predictor of toxic stress, causing a prolonged, maladaptive, or dysregulated stress response that leads to adult chronic diseases (depression, heart disease, cancer, obesity).[cite: 1]

What are the four dimensions of the Life-Span Perspective?

Multidirectional (growth spurts, growth/decline, plateaus), Multicontextual (microsystem, historical context/chronosystem, cohorts, SES), Multicultural (social constructions like race, gender, ethnicity), and Plastic (malleable yet durable).[cite: 1]

Contrast a Critical Period from a Sensitive Period.

A Critical Period is an early life stage where a characteristic must occur or it will never recur (e.g., organ formation, prenatal attachment); a Sensitive Period is an optimal time for rapidly acquiring a skill (e.g., language acquisition).[cite: 1]

What is Socioeconomic Status (SES) determined by?

Parents' education level, occupation, income status, and the neighborhood or region where you live.[cite: 1]

What is the Difference-Equals-Deficit Error?

The mistaken cognitive assumption or stereotype that unique phenotypes or behaviors that deviate from the prevailing social norm are automatically inferior.[cite: 1]

Define Intersectionality.

The acknowledgment that we all possess multiple overlapping identities (e.g., race, gender, class) that must be combined to understand how an individual uniquely experiences privilege or discrimination.[cite: 1]

What is the Dynamic-Systems Approach to plasticity?

The developmental view that individuals and their environments are always in an active state of change and interaction, never remaining in a fixed or permanent state.[cite: 1]

What are the steps of the Scientific Method?

1. Ask a question, 2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis with operational definitions, 3. Test the hypothesis with empirical evidence, 4. Draw data-based conclusions, 5. Report results; replication is essential.[cite: 1]

What is Meta-Analysis?

A "study of studies" that allows researchers to pull together results from many separate empirical studies on the same topic to determine an overall average effect size.[cite: 1]

What is the Pearson correlation coefficient (r)?

A metric ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 indicating the strength and direction of a relationship; closer it is to 1 (e.g., r=.76) means a stronger, tighter alignment to a straight line.[cite: 1]

What are the limitations of Scientific Observation and Surveys?

Observation has limited control and suffers from the Hawthorne effect (people change behavior when watched); Surveys rely on self-reported data which introduces social desirability bias and limited generalizability.[cite: 1]

Compare Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal research designs.

Cross-sectional captures between-person differences rapidly but suffers from cohort effects; Longitudinal tracks within-person changes over time but suffers from selective attrition and testing effects.[cite: 1]

What is the difference between Quantitative and Qualitative research?

Quantitative research relies on statistics and numerical data, whereas Qualitative research uses focus groups, interviews, and ethnographic narratives to capture depth.[cite: 1]

What are the main APA ethical standards in research?

Enforced by Institutional Review Boards (IRB); rules include competence, informed consent (or child assent), confidentiality, and managing conflicts of interest.[cite: 1]

Detail Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory components.

Subconscious internal influences drive personality; Id (subconscious, raw, disturbing desires), Ego (conscious mind navigating reality), and Superego (internalized fears/moral constraints); psychosexual stages are oral, anal, phallic, genital.[cite: 1]

Detail Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory and its structure.

Focuses on how social interactions, family, and culture shape development across 8 life stages, each presenting a unique developmental crisis or conflict that influences future success.[cite: 1]

List Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages in order.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust, 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt, 3. Initiative vs. Guilt, 4. Industry vs. Inferiority, 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion, 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation, 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation, 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair.[cite: 1]

Define Behaviorism and Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning.

Behaviorism says all behavior can be predicted by observable stimuli and learning; Classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one to elicit an involuntary response (e.g., Little Albert phobia).[cite: 1]

Detail B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning definitions.

Learning occurs via voluntary behavioral responses changing due to reinforcement (increases behavior) or punishment (decreases behavior).[cite: 1]

Distinguish Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, and Negative Punishment.

Positive Reinforcement: Add pleasant stimulus; Negative Reinforcement: Remove aversive stimulus (e.g. stop nagging); Positive Punishment: Add aversive stimulus (e.g. burn hand on stove); Negative Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus.[cite: 1]

What are Token Economies and Gamification?

Applications of operant conditioning; Token economies use immediate markers (stars) exchanged for delayed rewards (pizza party); Gamification uses immediate point rewards to reinforce behaviors like attendance.[cite: 1]

Explain Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory.

Learning occurs simply by observing and imitating others' modeling without hands-on doing; witnessing a model get reinforced leads to imitation, building self-efficacy and agency.[cite: 1]

Outline Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development.

Sensorimotor (0-2 years: sensory/motor), Preoperational (2-6 years: formal words but illogical), Concrete Operational (7-12 years: logical with real objects), and Formal Operational (12-adult: abstract/systematic logic).[cite: 1]

Explain Piaget's process of Cognitive Equilibrium.

Balance is challenged by a new experience -> state of Disequilibrium (confusion) -> Adaptation via Assimilation (fitting into old schemas) or Accommodation (changing schemas to fit new info) -> New Equilibrium.[cite: 1]

What is Information Processing Theory and Chunking?

A computer-like model (Input -> Processing -> Memory -> Output) focused on quantitative memory changes; Chunking divides information into smaller units to make it easier to hold in Working Memory.[cite: 1]

Outline Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory components.

Learning is shaped by cultural interactions and language; includes Apprenticeship in thinking, Guided participation, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and Scaffolding (temporary learning support).[cite: 1]

List the 5 systems of Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model.

Microsystem (immediate settings), Mesosystem (links between microsystems), Exosystem (indirect settings), Macrosystem (cultural values/beliefs), and Chronosystem (historical time/social media).[cite: 1, 2]

What are the three needs in Self-Determination Theory?

Autonomy (having choices), Competence (experience of mastery), and Relatedness (feeling connected/belonging); distinguishes autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation.[cite: 1]

What is Evolutionary Theory’s contribution to development?

Integrates biology and psychology; uses natural selection and selective adaptation to explain traits (e.g., baby's big eyes/smell are adaptive survival triggers to evoke parental care).[cite: 1]

Describe physical growth and brain maturity status by age 6.

Physical growth slows to 2 inches and 5 lbs a year with seasonal spurts; the brain reaches 95% of its adult volume by age 6, undergoing intensive myelination to speed up interconnectivity.[cite: 1]

What are Executive Functions and the role of BDNF?

Executive Functions consist of Working Memory + Inhibition -> Selective Attention -> Cognitive Flexibility; exercise increases blood flow and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) for neural growth.[cite: 1]

Define Neurodiversity.

The perspective that people experience and interact with the world in many different ways; there is no one "right" way of thinking, learning, and behaving, and differences are not deficits.[cite: 1]

Contrast Aptitude vs. Achievement vs. Intelligence Tests.

Aptitude tests measure potential to master a skill (SAT); Achievement tests measure what has been learned; Intelligence tests compute an IQ score (mental age / chronological age * 100) reflecting general factor "g".[cite: 1]

What are the four core principles of Developmental Psychopathology?

1. Mental illness is adaptive in atypical contexts, 2. Disabilities change over time (comorbidity, continuity), 3. Plasticity and compensation are widespread (e.g., masking symptoms), 4. Diagnosis reflects sociocultural context.[cite: 1]

Differentiate Multifinality from Equifinality.

Multifinality means a single cause can lead to an infinite number of different outcomes (e.g., divorce leading to varied adult paths); Equifinality means many different causes can lead to a singular outcome.[cite: 1]

Detail ADHD symptoms, types, and prevalence.

A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by Inattention, Impulsivity, and Hyperactivity; presentations include Inattentive, Hyperactive, or Combined; diagnosed in 8% of kids ages 4-11 and 14% ages 12-17; 3:1 boy-to-girl ratio in community.[cite: 1]

Detail Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) symptoms and prevalence.

Difficulties with social communication/interactions and restricted, repetitive behaviors/interests; tracks on a severity spectrum; affects 1 in 36 children (1 in 35 boys vs 1 in 143 girls); correlates with high-SES, White, advanced parental age.[cite: 1]

Explain Theory of Mind milestones.

The progression of understanding mental states: Diverse Desire (different desires), Diverse Belief (different beliefs), Knowledge-Ignorance (knowing what others don't), False Belief (mistaken beliefs), and Hidden Emotion (smiling but sad).[cite: 1]

What are the core components of Special Education in the U.S.?

Guided by IDEA and IEPs (Individual Education Plans), prioritizing mainstreaming/inclusion and using Response to Intervention (RTI) to assess students before placement.[cite: 1]

What is Code-Switching and its academic link?

Alternating between different language codes, regional dialects, vocabularies, or grammar based on context; code-switching is related to better academic achievement compared to monolingual students.[cite: 1]

What brain changes accompany early bilingualism (before age 3)?

No brain layout differences compared to monolinguals, but shows increased cortical thickness in the left hemisphere and requires more caloric effort to process speech.[cite: 1]

Compare Immersion, Bilingual Education, and ESL.

Immersion instructs completely in the new language; Bilingual Education offers instruction in dual-language classrooms; ESL provides intense English-only instruction with no first language allowed.[cite: 1]

What are the childhood poverty rates in the U.S. vs. CA and their biological impact?

U.S. is 13.7%, CA is 19.2% (adjusted for living cost); early poverty causes sequential damage to Language, Emotion Regulation, and Executive Functions, and is linked to smaller prefrontal cortex and hippocampal volumes.[cite: 1]

Define Hidden Curriculum with examples.

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit values and assumptions within a school that influence learning, such as tracking, teacher expectations/biases, sports competitions, physical layout, and public praise tokens.[cite: 1]

What are the PIRLS and TIMSS tests and their gender findings?

PIRLS measures 4th-grade reading every 5 years (girls lead boys globally); TIMSS measures 4th/8th-grade math and science every 4 years (boys' historic advantage has disappeared or reversed, supporting the gender-similarities hypothesis).[cite: 1]

Explain Erikson's Industry vs. Inferiority stage in Middle Childhood.

The psychosocial crisis where children cultivate a sense of competence, productivity, and mastery outside the home; failure or low self-esteem creates a cycle of failure where children disengage due to high anxiety.[cite: 1]

Describe the shift in Social Comparison and Self-Concept during middle childhood.

Evaluations drop from early childhood's over-optimism and shift to realistic social comparison; self-concepts transition from external/physical traits to complex internal/psychological strengths and weaknesses.[cite: 1]

Contrast Self-Concept from Identity.

Self-Concept is a person's cognitive understanding of who they are regarding morality, intelligence, appearance, and skills; Identity is the long-term sameness/continuity of psychological functioning, commitments, values, and social roles.[cite: 1]

What do Behavioral Genetics show about environments as we age?

Heritability explains over 50% of variance in IQ/aggression; as we age, the effects of heritability and nonshared environments grow, while the effects of the shared household environment shrink.[cite: 1]

Compare Two-Parent vs. Single-Parent family structures in the U.S.

Two-parent families (72% of kids; nuclear, step, adoptive, same-sex) function best overall with better educational/cognitive outcomes; Single-parent families (28% of kids) function less optimally due to low income, instability, and role stress.[cite: 1]

Contrast the Family Stress Model from the Resource and Investment Perspective.

Family Stress Model states poverty indirectly hurts kids by ruining parents' mental health and causing conflict; Resource Perspective states higher income allows direct investment in enriched, culturally rich learning experiences.[cite: 1]

Define Resilience and its key features.

A dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity; it is a system capacity to successfully adapt to disturbances, not a permanent individual trait.[cite: 1]

How do Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Indulgent parenting affect self-esteem?

Authoritative promotes self-esteem via emotional warmth and inductive discipline; Authoritarian hinders autonomy and breeds inferiority by setting rigid limits without warmth; Indulgent creates a false self-esteem.[cite: 1]

Explain the racial differences in self-esteem that emerge around age 11.

White children have higher self-esteem than Black/Latinx children early on, but a reversal occurs around age 11 for Black children due to racial socialization and pride; Asian children score high early but dip around 11.[cite: 1]

Define Child Culture and Homophily.

Child Culture comprises the habits, style, slang, rules, and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adults; Homophily is the powerful developmental tendency to bond with peers who match your own gender, age, race, and SES.[cite: 1]

Contrast peer relationship orientations between boys and girls.

Girls display a relational orientation, focusing on talking, sharing secrets, and expressing deep care; Boys display an activity orientation, focusing on active games, status, and shared laughter.[cite: 1]

Detail the categories of Unpopular Children.

Neglected (ignored but not actively disliked), Aggressive-Rejected (disliked because of confrontational, antagonistic aggression), and Withdrawn-Rejected (disliked due to timid, anxious, and socially awkward behavior).[cite: 1]

What is Bullying and the Bystander Effect?

Bullying is repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm on a weaker person; early intervention and friendships stop it best; the Bystander Effect occurs when witnesses fail to intervene because they lack solutions or fear peer blowback.[cite: 1]

Detail the HPA and HPG Axes in Puberty.

HPA Axis activates first (Adrenarche, ages 5-9) releasing adrenal androgens for secondary traits like body hair; HPG Axis drives Gonadarche, stimulating gonads to release estrogens/testosterone for primary sex maturation (menarche/spermarche).[cite: 1]

Explain the adolescent Circadian Shift and sleep deprivation risks.

SCN resetting causes a biological shift toward late-night alertness, leaving 75% of high schoolers sleep-deprived; sleep deficits cause slowed reaction times, insomnia, mood disorders, poor GPA, and increased antisocial behavior.[cite: 1]

Detail the Dual-Systems Model of the adolescent brain (Accelerator vs Brake).

The Dopaminergic Reward Pathway and Limbic System (the Accelerator) mature early in adolescence, driving high sensation-seeking and reward sensitivity; the Prefrontal Cortex (the Brake) handles top-down control but does not mature until the mid-to-late 20s.[cite: 1]

Outline the pubertal Sequence of Physical Growth.

Gains in body weight occur first, followed by gains in height, and muscle mass follows last; girls' growth peaks before menarche (age 12) while boys' growth peaks after spermarche (age 13).[cite: 1]

What are iron deficiency anemia rates in adolescent girls?

Adolescent girls face the highest rates of iron deficiency due to pubertal growth and menstruation, causing hidden anemia, persistent fatigue, skin/hair issues, and long-term fertility challenges.[cite: 1]

Explain how Leptin, Ghrelin, and sleep deprivation interact.

Leptin suppresses appetite and signals the brain when fat stores are sufficient for puberty; Ghrelin triggers hunger; sleep deprivation decreases leptin and increases ghrelin, slowing metabolism and driving obesity.[cite: 1]

Contrast Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder.

Anorexia features BMI < 17, intense weight fear, and distorted image; Bulimia features binging and purging weekly for 3 months; Binge-Eating features uncontrollable eating overconsumption without purging.[cite: 1]

Explain the findings of the TikTok diet culture study.

TikTok perpetuates a toxic diet culture by glorifying weight loss and presenting a narrow weight-normative view of health, dominated by young, White, female creators who lack clinical expertise.[cite: 1]

Contrast Winter Depression and Summer Depression in SAD.

Winter depression causes hibernation-like symptoms (hypersomnia, overeating, weight gain, withdrawal); Summer depression causes activation-like symptoms (insomnia, poor appetite, weight loss, restlessness, anxiety).[cite: 1]

Detail the timeline and disclosure sequence for Sexual Minority Youth.

Sexual attraction typically begins around age 11, tracking toward identification, romantic partnering around age 16, and disclosure around age 17; they face higher rates of bullying, abusive relationships, and eating disorders.[cite: 1]

Define Metacognition and the three distortions of Adolescent Egocentrism.

Metacognition is introspection and self-consciousness; Egocentrism distortions include Imaginary Audience (everyone is watching me), Personal Fable (my feelings are unique), and Invincibility Fable (bad consequences won't happen to me).[cite: 1]

Contrast Inductive Reasoning from Deductive Reasoning.

Inductive is bottom-up reasoning from specific facts to a general conclusion (Observation -> Pattern -> Hypothesis); Deductive is top-down reasoning using strict logic from a general premise to find specific facts.[cite: 1]

Explain the difference between Intuitive and Analytic Thought.

Intuitive thought is fast, automatic, and relies on emotional gut feelings, past experiences, and cultural assumptions; Analytic thought is slow, deliberate, and weighs pros, cons, and predictive logic.[cite: 1]

Detail the peer findings from the Gardner & Steinberg (2005) Stoplight Game.

When driving alone, adolescents and adults show similar risk profiles; however, when in a group of peers, adolescents' risky decision-making (running yellow lights) doubles due to sudden ventral striatum reward activation.[cite: 1]

What is Stage-Environment Fit Theory (Eccles)?

The principle that developmental or academic problems explode when an adolescent's psychological needs (autonomy, supportive role models, peer acceptance) are completely incompatible with a rigid middle school environment.[cite: 1]

Contrast the Entity Theory from the Incremental Theory of Intelligence.

Entity theory views intelligence as a fixed, immutable trait (fixed mindset); Incremental theory views intelligence as an expandable capacity that can be cultivated through effort and practice (growth mindset).[cite: 1]

Reconstruct James Marcia’s 4 Identity Statuses based on Exploration and Commitment.

Identity Achievement (Has explored + committed); Identity Foreclosure (No exploration + committed, blindly accepting parental values); Identity Moratorium (Has explored + postponed commitment, e.g. college); Role Confusion (No exploration + no commitment).[cite: 1]

Detail the 4 dimensions of Robert Sellers' Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI).

Salience (momentary relevance of race), Centrality (stable extent to which race defines you), Regard (private self-view vs public societal view), and Ideology (assimilationist, humanist, oppressed minority, nationalist philosophies).[cite: 1]

Why can Low Public Regard be protective in Sellers' MMRI model?

Low public regard means an adolescent is fully aware of society's racial prejudices, which helps them attribute discrimination to societal bias rather than internalizing it as a personal deficit, protecting their mental health.[cite: 1]

Define Familism and Filial Piety.

Collectivistic values where the family's needs, harmony, and desires are placed completely above individual wishes, accompanied by a deep obligation to honor, respect, and obey family elders.[cite: 1]

Contrast Peer Selection, Peer Facilitation, and Deviancy Training.

Peer Selection means choosing friends who are already like you; Peer Facilitation means friends smooth the path for behaviors; Deviancy Training is the explicit modeling and destructive reinforcement of rule-breaking peer behavior.[cite: 1]

Contrast Adolescent-Limited from Life-Course-Persistent Offenders.

Adolescent-Limited offending begins in adolescence and drops off sharply after adult milestones; Life-Course-Persistent offending starts early in childhood and continues for life, driven by neurological impairment and harsh parenting.[cite: 1]

Explain the displacement theory regarding digital media and sleep.

High smartphone ownership has drastically driven up the percent of teens sleeping under 7 hours; media use directly displaces essential sleeping hours and face-to-face family bonding time.[cite: 1]

What are the onset windows for ADHD, Conduct Disorder, Anxiety, and Mood Disorders?

ADHD onset peaks at ages 7-9; oppositional/conduct disorders peak at ages 7-15; phobias and separation anxiety peak early at 7-14; while severe mood disorders and substance abuse peak later between ages 18-29.[cite: 1]

What did the 2021 Youth Risk Behavior Survey reveal about depression by sex?

Highlighting severe functional impairment, 57% of adolescent girls and 29% of adolescent boys reported persistent, daily feelings of sadness or hopelessness.[cite: 1]

What are the clinical symptoms of a Major Depressive Episode (MDE)?

Lasts 2 weeks for adults (1 week for youth), requiring persistent dysphoria/irritability or anhedonia alongside severe changes in sleep, appetite, energy, and suicidal ideation.[cite: 1]

What are the 4 core categories of Social Support?

Emotional (empathy, trust, caring), Informational (advice, guidance, expert knowledge), Instrumental (concrete help, financial resources, physical time), and Appraisal (evaluation feedback).[cite: 1]

Contrast Strong Ties from Weak Ties in a social support network.

Strong ties represent high-frequency intimacy sources like parents, teachers, and close friends; Weak ties represent low-frequency connections like distant relatives or counselors, providing non-redundant perspectives.[cite: 1]

Contrast Social Support Network Breadth from Depth.

Breadth is the total number of active, non-overlapping support sources in a network; Depth is the average frequency of support and trust within those active ties.[cite: 1]

Explain the Breadth x Depth compensation effect in Year 1 post-graduation.

When support depth is low during a transition year, high network breadth compensates and substitutes for missing depth, making individuals significantly more likely to reach their personal goals.[cite: 1]

Explain the GenAI Literacy vs. GenAI Fluency definitions from Positive Youth Development.

GenAI Literacy is developing a basic understanding and ability to critically evaluate AI chatbots; GenAI Fluency is knowing exactly when, how, and confidence to ethically apply AI tools to pursue goals.[cite: 1]

Explain the Boomerang Generation and its cultural trends.

Young adults moving back to live with parents (53% of ages 18-24); White Americans are the least likely to co-reside due to individualistic views of success, while it is a comfortable multigenerational norm for immigrant families.[cite: 1]

Explain the Loneliness Paradox and Romance trends in Emerging Adulthood.

Emerging adults make more friend connections than any other age group but report the highest objective loneliness rates; casual sex has declined due to lower alcohol use, heavy gaming, and living with parents.[cite: 1]