ANTHP: scientific method and bio basis

Scientific method

empirical process of observation, hypothesis formulation, testing and analysis used to investigate phenomena and acquire knowledge

Primary literature

original peer reviewed research articles written by scientists who conducted the study

Secondary literature

publications that summarize, review, synthesize, or discuss primary research sources ( review articles, textbooks, meta- analyses)

Main message of the forgotten father of epigenetics

Highlights the foundational, overlooked contributions of Conrad Waddington who proposed that environmental factors can influence gene expression and development without altering the underlying DNA sequence

Prokaryote

a single celled organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and organelle structures ( bacteria)

Eukaryote

a complex single or multi cellular organism containing membrane bound organelles, including a distinct nucleus enclosing its genetic material

Organelle

a specialized subunit or structure within a cell that performs a specific functional task ( mitochondria, nucleus)

Nucleus

the membrane enclosed organelle in eukaryotic cells that houses genomic DNA and coordinates activities like growth and reproduction

DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid)

molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development, function, growth and reproduction of living organisms

Mitochondria

organelles responsible for cellular respiration and energy (ATP) production, contains its own distinct DNA, powerhouse of the cell

Ribosomes

cellular structures composed of RNA and proteins that serve as the site of protein synthesis

mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA)

small, circular DNA located specifically inside mitochondria, inherited almost exclusively maternally

Somatic cells

any body cell of a multicellular organism, excluding reproductive sex cells, typically diploid

Gametes

Specialized haploid reproductive cells (sperm or egg) that fuse during fertilization to form a zygote

Nucleotides

the basic chemical building blocks of DNA & RNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar group, and a phosphate group

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)

Four nitrogenous bases in DNA, a pairs specifically with T, and G pairs with C

General process of DNA replication

the unzipping of the double helix by enymes, followed by complementary base pairing onto each template strand to yield two identical DNA copies

Gene

a specific segment of DNA nucleotides that codes for a functional RNA or protein molecule

Diploid

cells contain two complete sets of chromosomes (2n)

Haploid

cells contain a single set of chromosomes (n)

Chromatin

the loose, uncoiled complex of DNA and histone proteins present in a non- dividing cell

Chromosome

a tightly condensed structure of chromatin formed during cell division to organize and separate DNA

Homologous (chromosomes)

a pair of matching chromosomes- one from each parent- that carry genes for the same traits at corresponding locations

Anthropology

the study of human

human biology

the study of contemporary human biological variation

Homologous pair

a set of two matching chromosomes (one from each parent) that carry the same genes at the same locations

Mitosis

cell division producing two genetically identical diploid daughter cells for growth and repair

RNA

a single stranded nucleic acid involved in gene expression and protein synthesis

mRNA (messenger RNA)

RNA that carries genetic code from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome for protein assembly

Transcription

process of copying a DNA sequence into an mRNA strand inside the nucleus

Translation

process where ribosome decode mRNA to build a specific protein out of amino acids

tRNA (transfer RNA)

RNA that delivers specific amino acids to the ribosome during translation

Uracil

Uracil is the nitrogenous base used in RNA

Thymine

corresponding base using in DNA

Ribosome

the cellular organelle where translation takes place and proteins are assembled

Meiosis

cell division producing four genetically distinct haploid gametes (sex cells)

Somatic cell

any body cell except reproductive cells (diploid)

Gamete

a reproductive cell, such as a sperm or egg, containing half the genetic material (haploid)

Haploid

containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (n)

Diploid

containing two complete sets of matching chromosomes (2n)

Mutation

a permanent change in the DNA sequence

Somatic mutation

somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive body cells and are not inherited

Germ-line mutations

occur in reproductive cells and can be passed to offspring

Random asssortment

the random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes into gametes during meiosis

Recombination(crossing over)

the exchange of genetic materical between homologous chromosomes during meiosis, creating new combinations of alleles.

autosome

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (chromosome 1-22 in humans)

sex chromosome

a chromosome involved in determining the biological sex of an organism (X & Y in humans)

Allele

a specific variant or version of a gene

Locus

the specific physical location or position of a gene on a chromosome

Complex trait

influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors

Simple trait

controlled by a single gene and follow Mendelian inheritance patterns

Genotype

the specific genetic makep or combination of alleles possessed by an organism

Dominance

a genetic scenario where an allele masks the phenotypic expression of a recessive allele in a heterozygous state

Recessive

an allele whose phenotypic effect is masked by a dominant allele and only expresses when homozygous

homozygous

having two identical alleles for a specific gene

heterozygous

having two diff alleles for a specific gene

punnett square

a diagram used to predict the possible phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross

ABO blood group

a human blood classification system determined by the presence or absence of A and B antigens on red blood cells, demonstrating codominance and multiple alleles

Codominance

a genetic scenario where both alleles for a gene are fully and equally expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote

Human genome project

an international scientific initiative that mapped and sequenced the entire human DNA sequence

Complex trait

a biological characteristic caused by the interaction of multiple genes and environmental variables rather than a single gene

Polygenic inheritance

a pattern of inheritance in which a single physical trait is controlled by the additive effect of two or more inderendent genes

height and why its a complext trait

height is a complex trait because its influenced by hundred of diff genres (polygenic) as well as environmental factors like nutrition and health