Chapter 11: Personality

Personality

An individual’s unique set of consistent behavioral traits.

Consistency

The characteristic of personality which describes the stability in a person’s behavior over time and across situations.

Distinctiveness

The characteristic of personality which describes the behavioral differences among people reacting to the same situation

Personality Trait

A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situation. Ex: honest, dependable, moody, impulsive etc. 

Factor Analysis

A statistical procedure to identify the basic trait that form the core of personality. Where correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closed related clusters of variables.

Five-Factor Model

The theory that most personality traits are derived from just five higher-order traits:

Extraversion, Neuroticism, Openness to experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness

Extraversion

A trait characterized by being outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, and gregarious with a positive outlook on life and motivation to pursue social contact, intimacy, and interdependence

Neuroticism

A trait characterized by being anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable with more impulsiveness and emotional instability

Openness to Experience

A trait characterized by having curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, intellectual pursuits, interests in new ideas, and unconventional attitudes and tolerance of ambiguity

Agreeableness

A trait characterized by being warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative, modest, straightforward, empathetic, and helpful.

Conscientiousness

A trait characterized by being diligent, well-organized, punctual, and dependable. It is also associated with strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate oneself effectively

Female

Which gender scores higher on agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness

Psychodynamic Theories

All the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that fous on mental forces.

Psychoanalysis

Lengthy verbal interactions with patients, during which researchers probe deeply into one’s life. Used by Freud to treat mental disorders.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Attempts to explain personality by focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, unconscious conflicts, and sexual urges.

Id

The primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. Contains raw biological urges and operates according to the pleasure principle. Engages in primary process thinking.

Pleasure Principle

The principle which demands immediate gratification of its urges.

Primary-process thinking

The thinking used by the id which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented.

Ego

The decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle. Mediates between the id and the expectations and norms of the world.

Reality Principle

The principle which seeks to delay gratification of the id’s urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found.

Secondary-Process Thinking

The thinking process used by the ego which is relatively rational, realistic, and oriented towards problem solving.

Superego

The moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong. Emerges around 3-5 years of age. 

Conscious

The level of awareness that is made up of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time. Affected by ego and super ego

Preconscious

The level of awareness that contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved. Contains ego and super ego.

Unconscious

The level of awareness that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness, but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior. Contains id and superego

Conflicts

Freud believed behavior is the outcome of an ongoing series of internal ___________ between the id, ego, and superego.

Sexual; Aggressive

Freud stressed the consequences of the ____________ and _____________ conflicts because they are the more suppressed urges.

Anxiety

Internal conflicts lead to tension and _________. 

Defense Mechanisms

Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions, such as anxiety and guilt. Typically, they’re mental maneuvers that work through self-deception

Rationalization

Creating false, but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior.

Repression

Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

Projection

Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another.

Displacement

Diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way that’s exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings

Regression

Reversion to immature patterns of behavior.

Identification

Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group

Psychological Disorders

These can result if people rely too extensively on defense mechanisms.

Psychosexual Stages

Developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality.

Fixation

Involves a failure to move forward from one stage to another, as expected. Can be caused by excessive gratification or frustration of needs. 

Oral Stage

The psychosexual stage of development from years 0-1 where the erotic focus is the mouth (sucking, biting) and a key task is weaning.

Anal Stage

The psychosexual stage of development from years 2-3 where the erotic focus is the anus (expelling or retaining feces) and a key task is toilet training.

Phallic Stage

The psychosexual stage of development from years 4-5 where the erotic focus is the genitals (masturbating) and a key task is identifying with adult role models and the Oedipal crisis.

Latency Stage

The psychosexual stage of development from years 6-12 where the erotic focus is non-existent (sexually repressed) and a key task is expanding social contracts.

Genital Stage

The psychosexual stage of development from puberty onward where the erotic focus is the genitals (being sexually intimate) and a key task is establishing intimate relationships and contributing to society through working.

5

By what age did Freud argue that personality is mostly established?

Oedipal Complex

How children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent. Healthy development hinges on the resolution of the Oedipal conflict and renewed identification with the same sex parent.

Penis Envy

Girls learn that little boys have different genitals, and they supposedly develop this sentiment. According to Freud, young girls feel hostile toward their mother because they blame her for their anatomical “deficiency.”

Analytical Psychology

Carl Jung’s theory on consciousness and personality. He also emphasized the unconscious determinants of personality, but he proposed two layers of the unconscious: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

Personal Unconscious

This level of awareness houses material that is not within one’s conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten

Collective Unconscious

The level of awareness which acts like a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past

Archetypes

Emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. Jungs “ancestral memories”

Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler’s approach to psychology and personality which emphasizes the motivation to strive for superiority. He saw a universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master life’s challenges.

Compensation

Involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities

Inferiority Complex

Exaggerated feelings of weakness and inadequacy which leads to overcompensation

Overcompensation

How people work to acquire status, power, and the trappings of success (fancy clothes, impressive cars) to cover up their underlying inferiority complex.

Birth Order

Alder proposed this factor could govern personality. 

Findings of psychodynamic perspectives

(1) unconscious forces can influence behavior,

(2) internal conflict often plays a key role in generating psychological distress,

(3) early childhood experiences can influence adult personality, and

(4) people use defense mechanisms to reduce their experience of unpleasant emotions

Cons of psychodynamic perspectives

Poor testability, unrepresentative samples, overemphasis on case studies, contradictory evidence, sexism