Modules 6–8: Cardiovascular Disease, Nutrigenomics & Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Disorders

Vocabulary flashcards summarizing essential terms and definitions from Modules 6 (Cardiovascular Disease), 7 (Nutrigenomics), and 8 (Liver, Biliary & Pancreatic Disorders) to prepare for Exam #3.

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

General term for disorders of the heart and blood vessels; leading cause of death in the U.S.

Hypertension (HTN)

Chronically elevated blood pressure; major modifiable risk factor for CVD and stroke.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) / Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Narrowing of coronary arteries by atherosclerosis, reducing blood flow to heart muscle.

Atherosclerosis

Progressive arterial plaque build-up that narrows lumen and impedes blood flow.

Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident, CVA)

Brain injury from interrupted blood supply; can be ischemic or hemorrhagic.

Heart Failure (HF/CHF)

Inability of the heart to pump sufficient blood; often accompanied by fluid retention.

Thrombus

Stationary blood clot formed inside a vessel or heart chamber.

Embolism

Traveling clot or debris that lodges in a distant vessel, causing obstruction.

Ischemic Stroke

Stroke caused by arterial blockage that deprives brain tissue of oxygen (≈85% of strokes).

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Brief, reversible neurologic deficit (‘mini-stroke’) signaling high stroke risk.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

Stroke resulting from rupture of cerebral blood vessel, often linked to uncontrolled HTN.

Angina Pectoris

Chest pain due to transient myocardial ischemia without infarction.

Arrhythmia

Abnormal heart rhythm; includes bradycardia, tachycardia, atrial/ventricular fibrillation.

Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Heart attack; necrosis of heart muscle from prolonged coronary occlusion.

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

‘Bad’ cholesterol particle delivering cholesterol to tissues; high levels promote plaque.

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)

‘Good’ cholesterol that returns excess cholesterol to liver for excretion.

Triglycerides (TG)

Main form of circulating fat; elevated levels increase pancreatitis and CVD risk.

Apo-A1

Principal apolipoprotein of HDL; associated with cardioprotective effects.

Apo-B

Primary apolipoprotein of atherogenic particles (LDL, VLDL); higher counts reflect risk.

C-reactive Protein (CRP)

Inflammatory marker; high levels correlate with increased MI and stroke risk.

Metabolic Syndrome

Cluster of ≥3 conditions (central obesity, high BP, high TG, low HDL, hyperglycemia) that raises CVD risk.

Foam Cells

Lipid-laden macrophages formed after engulfing oxidized LDL; early plaque component.

Fibrous Plaque

Collagen-rich cap over lipid core in atherosclerosis; can rupture and form clots.

Cardiac Output (CO)

Volume of blood the heart pumps per minute (stroke volume × heart rate).

Peripheral Resistance

Opposition to blood flow in systemic circulation; major determinant of BP.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

Hormonal cascade that elevates BP via vasoconstriction and sodium/water retention.

Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH)

Pituitary hormone that conserves water and causes vasoconstriction, raising BP.

Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs)

No double bonds; raise LDL; AHA suggests ≤5–6 % kcal.

Trans Fat

Partially hydrogenated oils that raise LDL and lower HDL; avoid entirely.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids (Linoleic Acid)

PUFAs from vegetable oils; excess intake may promote lipid oxidation.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids (EPA & DHA)

PUFAs from fatty fish/flax; lower TG, inflammation, and VLDL; AHA: 2 fish servings/week.

Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs)

Oleic acid–rich fats (olive oil, avocados) that lower LDL and TG.

Dietary Cholesterol

Cholesterol from animal foods; effect on serum cholesterol smaller than SFAs in most people.

Plant Stanols/Sterols

Phytochemicals that block intestinal cholesterol absorption, lowering LDL.

Soluble Fiber

Viscous fiber that lowers serum cholesterol via SCFA production; goal 14 g/1000 kcal.

Homocysteine

Sulfur amino acid; elevated plasma levels linked to CVD; lowered by folate, B6, B12.

Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH)

Genetic LDL-receptor defect causing very high LDL and early MI.

Bile Acid Sequestrants

Drugs that bind bile in gut, increasing fecal cholesterol loss; may cause GI side effects.

Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)

Vitamin B3 used pharmacologically to lower LDL and raise HDL; flushing common.

PCSK9 Inhibitors

Injectable antibodies that increase LDL-receptor recycling, dramatically lowering LDL.

Fibrates

Lipid-lowering drugs that reduce TG and raise HDL; less effect on LDL.

Statins

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors that reduce hepatic cholesterol synthesis; first-line therapy.

Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA)

Balloon procedure to reopen stenosed coronary arteries.

Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG)

Surgical re-routing of blood around blocked coronary arteries using grafts.

DASH Diet

Eating pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy; proven to lower BP.

Mediterranean Diet

Plant-forward pattern emphasizing olive oil, fish, whole grains; lowers CVD risk.

Salt Sensitivity

Genetic tendency for BP to rise with sodium intake; not predictable clinically.

Potassium (K⁺)

Dietary mineral that promotes natriuresis and vasodilation, lowering BP.

Cardiac Cachexia

Wasting syndrome in HF with weight & muscle loss, high catabolism.

Nutrigenomics

Study of how diet interacts with the entire genome to influence gene expression.

Nutrigenetics

Study of how individual genetic variation alters response to specific nutrients.

Genome-wide Association Study (GWAS)

Research method linking common genetic variants with diseases/traits across the genome.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

Single base-pair variation in DNA; most common form of human genetic diversity.

Polygenic Risk Score

Aggregate measure of many SNPs to estimate genetic predisposition to a trait/disease.

Epigenetics

Heritable changes in gene expression not involving DNA sequence alterations.

DNA Methylation

Addition of methyl groups to DNA cytosine bases, often silencing genes.

Histone Modification

Chemical alterations of histone proteins affecting chromatin structure and gene activity.

RNA Silencing

Post-transcriptional gene regulation by small RNAs that degrade or block mRNA.

Transcription Factor

Protein that binds DNA regulatory regions to control transcription of target genes.

MTHFR rs1801133

SNP affecting folate metabolism; influences homocysteine levels and folate needs.

APOA2 rs5082

Variant modifying individual response to saturated fat intake and weight gain risk.

FADS1/FADS2 rs174537

Polymorphism influencing conversion of ALA to EPA/DHA omega-3 fatty acids.

CYP1A2 rs2472300

Genetic variant determining fast or slow caffeine metabolism.

TAS2R38

Gene encoding bitter taste receptor; variations classify ‘tasters’ vs ‘non-tasters’ of PTC.

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)

2008 U.S. law protecting individuals from genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment.

Glycogenesis

Formation of glycogen from glucose in liver and muscle.

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen stores to release glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (e.g., amino acids, lactate).

Transamination

Transfer of amino group between amino acids and keto acids; key in amino acid metabolism.

Beta-Oxidation

Mitochondrial process breaking down fatty acids to acetyl-CoA for energy.

Albumin

Major plasma protein synthesized by liver; maintains oncotic pressure.

Ascites

Fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, often from cirrhosis and portal hypertension.

Jaundice

Yellow discoloration of skin/eyes due to elevated bilirubin from liver or bile disease.

Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)

Liver enzyme; elevated serum levels indicate hepatocellular injury.

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)

Enzyme present in liver and muscle; rises with liver damage.

Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)

Enzyme elevated in cholestasis or bone disease.

Bilirubin

Pigment from hemoglobin breakdown; high serum levels cause jaundice.

Prothrombin Time (PT) / INR

Blood clotting test; prolonged values suggest reduced hepatic synthesis of clotting factors.

Hepatitis A Virus (HAV)

Fecal-oral transmitted virus causing acute, self-limiting hepatitis.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)

Blood-borne virus that can cause chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)

Blood-borne virus commonly progressing to chronic infection and liver damage.

Hepatitis D Virus (HDV)

Defective virus requiring HBV coinfection; exacerbates liver disease.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)

Fecal-oral virus prevalent in developing regions; usually acute.

Fulminant Hepatitis

Rapid, severe liver failure with encephalopathy within 8 weeks; high mortality.

Lactulose

Non-absorbable disaccharide laxative that traps ammonia in colon to treat encephalopathy.

End-Stage Liver Disease (ESLD)

Irreversible liver failure with complications such as encephalopathy, ascites, portal HTN.

Hepatic Encephalopathy

Neuropsychiatric syndrome from liver failure and ammonia accumulation.

Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAA)

Leucine, isoleucine, valine; levels drop in ESLD and are supplemented therapeutically.

Aromatic Amino Acids (AAA)

Phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan; rise in ESLD and contribute to encephalopathy.

Alcoholic Liver Disease

Spectrum of liver injury (steatosis → hepatitis → cirrhosis) induced by chronic alcohol intake.

Portal Hypertension

Elevated pressure in portal vein due to cirrhosis; leads to varices and ascites.

Varices

Dilated veins (often esophageal) prone to life-threatening bleeding secondary to portal HTN.

Wernicke’s Encephalopathy

Acute neuro disorder from thiamin deficiency, common in alcoholism.

Wilson’s Disease

Inherited defect in copper excretion causing hepatic and neurologic toxicity.

Hemochromatosis

Genetic iron overload disorder leading to organ damage; treated with phlebotomy.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Hepatic fat accumulation unrelated to alcohol; associated with obesity and insulin resistance.

Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH)

Inflammatory, progressive form of NAFLD that can lead to cirrhosis.

Biliary Dyskinesia

Functional motility disorder of gallbladder or Sphincter of Oddi causing biliary pain.

Cholelithiasis

Formation of gallstones within the gallbladder.

Choledocholithiasis

Gallstone obstruction of common bile duct.