Notes taken in Class on Learning chapter 7

Classical conditioning

Form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response; studied by Pavlov and Watson.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally produces a response without learning; example: loud noise produces fear, meat produces salivation.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Natural reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus; example: fear response to loud noise, salivation to meat.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned response; example: bell causing salivation.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to a conditioned stimulus; example: salivation to a bell, fear when seeing a rat paired with noise.

Neutral stimulus

Stimulus that produces no response until paired with the UCS; becomes CS after conditioning.

Little Albert experiment

Demonstrated that fear can be learned; child developed fear of white rat (CS) after pairing with loud noise (UCS); fear generalized to similar objects.

Generalization

When similar stimuli to the CS produce the CR; example: Little Albert feared multiple white fluffy objects.

Discrimination

Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus; opposite of generalization.

Acquisition

Phase of learning where CS and UCS are repeatedly paired to produce learning.

Extinction

Weakening or disappearance of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of the CR after extinction when the CS is shown again.

Taste aversion

Strong learned dislike of a food after a negative experience; can occur after one trial and lasts long-term.

Second-order conditioning

When a second neutral stimulus is paired with an existing CS to produce a CR; example: object → metronome (CS) → food (UCS) → salivation.

Operant conditioning

Learning based on consequences of behavior; responses are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment; studied by Skinner and Thorndike.

Law of effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes increase; behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes decrease.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior; example: giving a reward, token economy.

Token economy

System where symbolic items (tokens) are earned and exchanged for rewards; increases desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior; example: seatbelt beeping stops when you buckle up (escape conditioning).

Escape conditioning

Behavior removes a negative stimulus, increasing the behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant experience to reduce behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce behavior.

Effective punishment

Most effective when immediate and severe (not prolonged).

Reinforcer

Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior; more effective than punishment.

Overjustification effect

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation, lowering enjoyment or satisfaction.

Ratio schedule

Reinforcement based on amount of work or responses; “ratio = work.”

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a specified number of responses; example: piecework (10 toys = bonus pay).

Variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement after unpredictable number of responses; example: slot machines; produces high, steady responding.

Interval schedule

Reinforcement based on passage of time; “interval = time.”

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time; example: bi-weekly paycheck.

Variable interval schedule

Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

Schedules of reinforcement

Patterns determining when reinforcement is delivered; influence learning speed and resistance to extinction.

Shaping

Process of reinforcing successive steps toward a desired behavior; uses positive reinforcement.

Successive approximation

Small steps that gradually lead to the final desired behavior.

Superstitious behavior

Behavior mistakenly reinforced due to coincidental reward; example: lucky necklace believed to increase goals.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without behavior change until needed; not immediately observable.

Cognitive map

Mental representation of the physical environment; develops during latent learning.

Social learning

The process of learning by watching and imitating others.

Modelling

Imitating another person’s behavior; central to social learning theory.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who studied modelling and developed social learning theory; creator of Bobo Doll experiment.

Bobo doll experiment

Children watched an adult behave aggressively toward a doll; children imitated aggression, gun play, and physical harm; showed modeling of violence.

Modelling in therapy

Useful when showing an action works better than verbally explaining it; helps clients learn behaviors.

Belief theory

Self-efficacy beliefs influence a person’s cognition, motivation, emotion, and decision making.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to make change; important for learning and behavior.

Mirror neuron system

System of neurons that fire both when performing an action and observing the action; supports imitation and understanding intentions.

Locations of mirror neurons

Primarily in frontal lobe (area 44) and parietal lobe (area 40).

Mirror neuron function

Allows prediction of future behavior; brain rehearses observed actions.

Implicit learning

Learning that occurs without conscious awareness; automatic acquisition of knowledge or skills.

Habituation

Reduced response after prolonged exposure to a repeated, non-threatening stimulus; also considered “boredom.”

Sensitization

Increased response to a stimulus following exposure to a strong or surprising stimulus; one stimulus amplifies reaction to another.

What is learning?

Permanent change in behavior due to experience and environment.

Behaviourism

The theory that behaviors are learned, not innate; used to treat fears through exposure therapy.

Exposure therapy

Gradual exposure to fear stimulus → relaxation → fear reduction; based on classical conditioning.

Signal detection theory

Theory used to measure ability to differentiate information-bearing signals from noise; included in context of learning and behavior.