BoE Words

Hindsight Bias

The belief that you would have known after you know the answer.

Operational Definition

Precise description of exact procedures used in a research study.

Case Study

In-depth study of an individual or group hoping to reveal things true to all of us.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in a natural environment.

Survey

Used for ascertaining self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group.

*Experiment

The investigator manipulates the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable.

Control Group

Group that is not exposed to treatment.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to treatment.

Population

Everyone in a group being studied.

Random Sample

Sample that represents the population you want to study where everyone has a chance to participate.

Random Assignment

Everyone has an equal chance to be in either group.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither the person in the experiment or experiment conductor knows who's in which group.

Placebo

Fake medication given to the control group.

*Independent Variable

The factor that is being changed and its effect is what’s being studied.

Dependent Variable

The variable that may change because of the changes in the independent variable.

Statistical Significance

The probability that the result did not occur by chance.

Illusory Correlation

When we think there is a relationship where there is not.

*Standard Deviation

The average difference between each score and mean.

Informed Consent

The participants are told enough to allow them to choose whether they want to participate or not.

Debriefing

Explanation of the study after the experiment.

Social Psychology

just-world phenomenon

Idea that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, generally associated with Karma.

Altruism*

The unselfish concern for others when one puts others before themselves.

Aggression

Behavior that is intended to inflict emotional or physical harm on someone else because of frustration or anger.

frustration-aggression hypothesis

When we have a goal blocked, we become frustrated, which leads to aggression.

bystander effect

The more people that are around, the less likely you are to help out because of the diffusion of responsibility.

social loafing

When we put less effort because we’re in a group compared to when we’re on our own.

social exchange theory*

Our social behavior is an exchange process aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs. If the reward exceeds the cost, you will help.

reciprocity norm

If I do something nice for you, you don't harm me in return and vice versa.

Conflict*

an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles

social trap*

Social traps refer to situations in which individuals or groups pursue immediate benefits that later result in negative consequences for the group as a whole.

ingroup vs. outgroup phenomenon

describes the fact that we tend to judge and treat people who are like us more favorably than people who are different from us.

fundamental attribution error

he tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavio

diffusion of responsibility

When we think someone else can help.

Deindividuation

Tendency for people to lose individuality, often because one is a member of a group or because the situation warrants it. There are so many people that no one knows it’s you.

social responsibility norm

Expectation that people will help those in need of help.

Phillip Zimbardo

Ran Stranfor prison study on adopting roles assigned.

Groupthink

the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility.

social facilitation

People try harder when they are with people when they are confident, it is also known as the mere presence effect.

Soloman Asch

Did Asch Experiment to study conformity.

Stanley Milgram

Did Milgram Study to study obedience. with electric shocks

foot-in-the-door technique

If someone complies with a small request, they may then comply with a larger request.

Reciprocity

When someone helps you, you should help them too.

Obedience

Behaving as instructed even if we don’t want to so we can avoid punishment or unpleasant consequences.

Conformity

Going along with the crowd or yielding to group pressure.

Biological Bases-Most are from the textbook

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

Axon

Long fiber that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Soma

Region of a neuron that contains the nucleus.

Dendrites

Bushy extension of a neuron that receives messages from other neurons.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. There either will be an action potential or not, there is nothing in between.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating material that encases axons making transmission speed faster.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Morphine-like hormones that control pain + pleasure.

Endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system including glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Hormones

Chemical messengers in the endocrine system.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and pleasurable emotion.

Acetylcholine

memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and fight or flight response.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter crucial for mood, anxiety, and sleep regulation.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep + arousal.

Cerebral cortex

The body’s control + information processing center that covers the cerebral hemispheres.

Corpus Callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres + carrying messages between them.

Thalamus

Controls all sensory inputs other than smell.

Hypothalamus

A regulator of biological needs (feeding, fight, flight, and reproduction) located below thalamus.

Reticular Formation

The body’s alarm clock best known as the sleep + arousal center.

Medulla

On the base of the brainstem that controls certain reflexes, heartbeat, and breathing.

Spinal Cord

Tissue that connects your brain to your lower back.

Cerebellum

Also known as the little brain that controls complicated motor movements.

Hippocampus

Memory relay station in limbic system.

Amygdala

Center of emotion and fear in the limbic system.

Central Nervous System

The body’s decision maker that contains the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Contains all the nerves that lie outside the brain.

Bottom-up processing

analysis

that begins with the sensory

receptors and works up to the

brain’s integration of sensory

information.

Sensation

Initial process of detecting and encoding environmental stimuli through sensory organs.

Perception

Mental process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Bottom-up processing

Constructing perceptions from sensory input without relying on prior knowledge or expectations.

Top-down processing

Interpreting sensory information using pre-existing knowledge and expectations.

Absolute threshold

Minimum intensity needed for a stimulus to be consciously detected.

Just noticeable difference (Difference threshold)

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Signal detection theory

Examines how external stimuli are detected under different conditions, considering both sensory and decision-making factors.

Cocktail party effect

Ability to focus on one conversation amidst background noise.

Selective attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Circadian rhythm

Natural, internal 24-hour cycle regulating sleep-wake patterns.

Manifest content

Surface-level, apparent storyline of a dream.

Latent content

Hidden, symbolic meaning of a dream according to psychoanalytic theory.

Sleep apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Night terrors

Intense episodes of fear during non-REM sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Chronic neurological disorder causing excessive daytime sleepiness.

Delta waves

Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Sleep spindles

Short bursts of brain activity during non-REM sleep.

Alpha waves

Brain waves indicating a relaxed, awake state.

REM sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, characterized by vivid dreams and physiological arousal.

Wish fulfillment theory

Freudian idea that dreams satisfy unconscious desires.

Information processing theory

Dreams help process and consolidate information from daily experiences.