Test #1 SOC 110

Sociology

The systematic study of human society.

Society

People who interact in a defined territory and share a culture.

Sociological perspective

Seeing the general in the particular; looking for general patterns within the behavior of particular people.

Global perspective

The study of the larger world and our society's place in it (logical extension of the sociological perspective).

High-income countries

Nations with the highest overall standards of living generate most of the world’s goods and services).

Middle-income countries

Nations with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole (many have considerable social inequality).

Low-income countries

Nations with a low standard of living in which most people are poor.

Global Stratification

Explains the causes and consequences of global wealth and poverty (where we live shapes the lives we live).

Positivism

A scientific approach to knowledge based on ‘positive’ facts as opposed to mere speculation.

Comte’s three stages of society

Theological, metaphysical, and scientific stages of societal development.

Advantages of sociological thinking

Helps us asses the truth of ‘common sense’, helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives, and helps us live in a diverse world

Theory

A statement of how and why specific facts are related

Macro-level orientation

A broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole

Micro-level orientation

A close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

Theoretical approach

A basic image of society that guides the thinking and research of a sociologist (contains 3 major theoretical approaches)

Structural-functional approach

A macro framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability (calls attention to social structure and looks for each structure’s social functions)

Social-conflict approach

A macro framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change

Gender-conflict theory (or Feminist theory)

Study of society focusing on inequality and conflict between women and men.

Feminism

Support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to the patriarchy or sexism

Race-conflict theory

The study of society that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories

Symbolic-interaction approach

A micro framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

Social structure

Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior (likely to have many functions)

Manifest functions

The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

Latent functions

The unrecognized and unintended consequnces of any social patterns

Social dysfunction

A consequence of any social pattern that disrupts the operation of society or is harmful to some category of the population

Social functions

The consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole

Three ways for sociologists to conduct research

Positivist sociology, Interpretive sociology, and Critical sociology

Positivist sociology (or sometimes called Empirical sociology)

The study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior

Science

A logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation

Empirical sociology

Information we can verify with our own sense

Interpretive sociology

The study of society that focuses on discovering the meanings people attach to their social world

Critical sociology

The study of society that focuses on inequality and the need for social change

Variable

A concept whose value changes from case to case (like the price of an item changes depending on the item)

Measurement

A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

Operationalize a variable

Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

Reliability

Consistency in measurement

Validity

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure

Correlation

A relationship in which two or more variables change together

Cause and effect

A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another

Independent variable

The variable that causes change

Dependent variable

The variable that is changed

Spurious correlation

An apparent but false relationship between two or more variables that is the result of some other variable

Objectivity

Personal neutrality in conducting research

Gender

The personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being male or female

Five ways gender can shape research

Androcentricity, Overgeneralizing, Gender blindness, Double standards, and Interference

Androcentricity

Approaching an issue from a male perspective

Overgeneralizing

When researchers use data drawn from only one sex

Gender blindness

Failing to consider gender at all

Double standards

Judging men and women differently

Interference

If the subject reacts to the sex of the researcher

Research method

A systematic plan for doing research (five methods).

Experiments

A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions

Survey

A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions on a questionnaire or in an interview

Participant observation (or Case study)

A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities

Using existing sources

A research method in which the researcher doesn’t collect their own data, but analyzes existing sources or data collected by others

Culture

The ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way of life

Nonmaterial culture

The ideas created by members of a society

Material culture

The physical things created by members of a society

Culture shock

Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life.

The five common elements of culture

Symbols, Language, Values, Beliefs, and Norms

Symbols

Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture

Language

A system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another

Cultural transmission

The process by which one generation passes culture to the next

Sapir-Whorf thesis

The idea that people see and understand the world through the cultural lens of language

Values

Culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful, and that serve as broad guidelines to social living (abstract standards of goodness)

Beliefs

Specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true (particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false)

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Mores

Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance)

Folkways

Norms for routine or casual interaction

Social control

Attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior.

Hunting and gathering

The use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food

Horticulture

The use of hand tools to raise crops

Pastoralism

The domestication of animals

Agriculture

Large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources

Industry/Industrialism

The production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery

Postindustrial information technology/Postindustrialism

The production of information using computer technology

Technology

Knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings

Sociocultural evolution

The historical changes in culture brought about by new technology

High culture

Cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite

Popular culture

Cultural patterns that are widespread among a society’s population

Subculture

Cultural patterns that set apart some segments of a society’s population

Multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions

Counterculture

Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society

Cultural integration

The close relationship among various elements of a cultural system

Ethnocentrism

The practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Cultural relativism

The practice of judging a culture by its own standards

Cultural universals

Traits that are part of every known culture

Sociobiology

A theoretical approach that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture

Socialization

The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture.

Personality

A person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling

Behaviorism

A theory that states that behavior is not instinctive but is instead learned

Sigmund Freud

Modeled human personality into three parts: Id, Superego, and Ego. Id and Superego remain in conflict, and Ego manages the two opposing forces

Id

The human being’s basic drives

Superego

The cultural values and norms internalized by an individual

Ego

A person’s conscious effort to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives with the demands of society

Jean Piaget

Believed that human development involves both biological maturation and gaining social experience. Identified four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete Operational stage, and Formal Operational stage

Sensorimotor stage

The level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through their senses

Preoperational stage

The level of human development at which individuals first use language and other symbols

Concrete Operational stage

The level of human development at which individuals first see causal connections in their surroundings

Formal Operational stage

The level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically