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ATP synthase
An enzyme that synthesizes ATP by utilizing a proton gradient.
Oxidative phosphorylation
A metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the electron transport chain to produce ATP.
Citric acid cycle
A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.
NADH
A coenzyme that carries electrons to the electron transport chain.
Pyruvate
A key intermediate in several metabolic pathways throughout the cell.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often used to activate or deactivate proteins and enzymes.
Apoptosis
The process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.
Tumor suppressor genes
Genes that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth, when mutated can lead to cancer.
Oncogenes
Mutated genes that when activated promote the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells.
Central dogma of biology
The process by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA → RNA → Protein.
Phosphodiester bond
A covalent bond that links the nucleotides in a strand of DNA or RNA.
Nucleotides
The basic building blocks of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.
Heterochromatin
A tightly packed form of DNA, which is transcriptionally inactive.
Euchromatin
A less condensed form of chromatin that is more accessible for transcription.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A molecule essential for protein synthesis, consisting of a long chain of nucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms.
Hydrogen bonds in DNA
Weak bonds that form between complementing nitrogenous bases, holding the strands of DNA together.
Electron transport chain
A series of protein complexes and other molecules that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors.
