Unit 2 Cognition

Perception

the process of interpreting the information we obtain through our 5 senses. (interpreting a stimulus)

Sensation

The raw data or information that we recieve from our sensory receptors. (Detecting a stimulus)

Top down processing

when you use prior knowledge and experiences to interpret information. Usually when a stimulus is familiar or simple, allows us to make sense of what we are experiencing.

Bottom Up processing

When the stimuli or experience is complex and unfamiliar to an individual. Building information from the ground up without relying on prior knowledge

Schemas

Mental frameworks or blueprints that organize and interpret information. Based on past experiences

Perceptual Set

A mental shortcut your brain uses to quickly interpret what your experiencing

Selective Attention

When we focus on a particular stimulus, we often tune out other stimuli in our environment.

Cocktail party effect

describes the brains ability to focus on one specific auditory stimulus and tuning out external stimulus

Inattentional blindness

the failure to notice stimuli in our visual field due to our attention being focused elsewhere.

Change blindness

A type of inattentional blindness, its where we fail to notice changes in the environment

Apparent movement

Which is when we perceive motion even though nothing is actually moving

Stroboscopic Motion

When images are shown in rapid succession that it gives the illusion that there is motion

Phi Phenomenon

Occurs when lights blink on and off in sequence, resulting in us percieving objects as moving even though the objects are stationary

Induced movement

When a stationary object appears to move because of the motion of surrounding objects.

Autokinetic effect

When a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move

Gestalt Psychology

help explain our perceptual world. Focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns.

Figure and Ground

This principal describes how our visual system seperates what we see into 2 categories.

Continuation

Addresses why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths.

Closure

This principle explains how our brain subconciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object.

Similarity

Refers to how we perceive a group of similar objects as one cohesive unit.

Anomaly

when an object is different from the others, it becomes a focal point and stands out.

Proximity

When objects are placed close to eachother they are often percieved as a single group, while objects that are placed further apart are seen as seperate entities.

Symmetry

Objects that are symmetrical to eachother are percieved as one object, rather than individual, separate elements.

Depth perception

The ability to perceived relative distance of an object in ones visual field

Binocular cues

Our eyes working together to process visual information

Convergence

When something is close your eyes look inward, but when something is far your eyes straighten out

Retinal disparity

Each eye seeing a slightly different view of an object

Monocular cues

Only require one eye, and help us perceive depth on flat or two dimensional surfaces.

Relative size

Allows us to tell how close an object is to us. Objects closer will appear larger while objects that are further will appear smaller.

Interposition

When objects are blocked by another object they are most likely farther away. While objects that are not covered are closer.

Relative height

Objects that are higher appear to be farther away compared to objects that are lower.

Shading and contour

Parts of an image that ate hazy and have less detail appear to be farther away while objects that are more clear and in focus are closer

Texture and Gradient

Objects that are clear, in focus, and full of details appear closer than objects that lack details and appear more blurry

Linear perspective

When parallel lines appear to converge at a point in the distance, this helps us understand our positioning and understand depth

Motion parallax

Objects closer to you appear to move quickly while objects further away appear to move more slowly. Example: driving in a vehicle

Perceptual constancy

The ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when their appearance changes due to varying conditions.

Size constancy

Refers to our brains tendency to perceive objects as same size.

Color constancy

When we perceive the color of an object to remain consistent, even if the lighting changes

Shape constancy

The tendency of the brain to perceive an objects shape as the same, even when it moves.

Lightness constancy

Refers to our ability to perceive the blackness, whiteness, and gayness of an objective as consistent even under different lighting conditions essentially this is the shading of an object.

Cognition

All forms of knowing and awareness. Such as perceiving, conceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem solving.

Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

Prototypes

The most typical or basic example of a concept. It serves as a mental image that illustrates the concept and acts as a cognitive reference point or benchmark. Basketball or baseball, when the concept would be Balls.

Assimilation

When we fit new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

When we change a schema to incorporate new information

Executive functions

Cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal directed behaviors. As well as engage in critical thinking. Linked to prefrontal cortex and frontal lobe

Algorithims

Where a person tackles a problem step by step in a systematic way. Example losing your phone and searching each room in the house step by step

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences. Example losing your phone and retracing your steps. But you may miss some steps doing this

Representative heuristics

Involves making judgements based on how much they resemble a typical stereotype. Example: “He is so smart. He must be a poet”

Availability heuristics

Involves making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: you might not choose to ride planes to go on vacation because you just saw a movie about a plane crash.

Mental set

Cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems. Specific to problem solving.

Priming

Refers to the phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus

Repetition priming

Occurs when you are exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later

Semantic priming

Involves the influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word.

Framing effect

How information is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgments

Creativity

When we as individuals create new original ideas and solutions

Divergent thinking

When a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem

Convergent thinking

Involves narrowing down the possibilities to identify the single best solution

Expertise

The more knowledge someone has about a subject, the more likely they are to apply it in new and innovative ways

Imaginative thinking skills

An individual must be able to view concepts in unique and creative ways, instead of focusing on traditional perspectives

Venturesome personality

The individual must be willing to seek out new experiences and embrace challenges that will help the

Intrinsic motivation

Individuals must have an internal drive to pursue a goal for personal satisfaction, rather than external rewards.

Creative environment

Individuals that surround themselves with other creative people and put themselves in creative environments tend to foster innovation and promote creative thinking

Functional fixedness

Limits a person to using an object in its traditional way

Gamblers fallacy

If an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.

Sunk cost fallacy

The tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you’ve already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value

Memory

Information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later.

Metacognition

Awareness of your own cognitive processes. Thinking about thinking.

Explicit memory

Information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought.

Episodic memory

Subtype of explicit memory, relates to personal experiences or events

Semantic memory

Subtype of explicit memory, involves facts, knowledge, and general information

Implicit memory

Consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

Procedural Memory

Type of implicit memory. Helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines.

Prospective memory

Involves remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week.

Parallel processing

It handles multiples streams of information simultaneously. For example making explicit memories while subconsciously creating implicit ones.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Allows the brain to form stronger neural connections which allows us to store and retain knowledge and skills over time

Visuospatial Sketchpad

This part of working memory handles visual and spatial information. It is what allows us to visualize objects and their location. Example: Imagining a scene, or following a familiar path.

Phonological Loop

Deals with verbal and auditory information

Phonological store

part of the phonological loop. Also known as the ¨Inner ear¨ holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time.

Articulatory rehearsal process

Part of the phonological loop. Also known as the ¨Inner voice.¨ Helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory. What you use to remember a phone number, or keep a list of words in mind//

Central executive

Acts as the control center of working memory. It directs attention and resources to where they are needed and to different tasks from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Episodic buffer

How long term-memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information, such as sounds and visuals, are combined. Acts as a temporary storage system from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long term memory.

Multi-store model

Explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key system that information must pass through if its going to be remembered.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory. Lasts a fraction of a second. It’s why you can see an after image of a sparkler for example

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory. Last 1-4 secon and why you can remember the last words someone said even if you weren’t really playing attention

Automatic processing

Information that is gathered with little or no conscious effort

Working memory

If something is of interest you, then it moves into this. This can only hold a limited of information for a short period of time. Not only stores information but also processes information.

Maintenance rehearsal

When you repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting

Elaborative rehearsal

When you connect new information to something you already know which makes it easier to remember

Encoding

Processes and strategies we use to take in short term memory and turn it into long term memory

Structural processing

Superficial level, the focus is on the physical appearance of the information

Phonemic processing

Deeper level, focuses on how the information sounds

Semantic processing

Focus is on the meaning of the information

Visual encoding

When we encode information by the visual elements we observe

Acoustic encoding

When the different sound elements help with the encoding process. For example, rhymes

Tactile encoding

When we use the feeling of touch when encoding the information

Organizational encoding

when we process information in terms of a specific sequence.

Elaborative encoding

When you pair new information with prior knowledge

Semantic encoding

When you focus on the meaning or context of the information

Mnemonic devices

Help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall. Often use patterns or rhymes.