summary of 11-14

what is the function of a skeletal system

1. movement

2. storage (calcium, phosphate)

3. cell formation (erythropoietin stimulates redbone marrow RBC production)

what is a compact bone

forms shaft and ends, contains marrow space

what is a spongy bone

trabeculae from lattice-like support

what do chondroblasts do

cartilage-forming cells

what do osteoblasts do

young-bone forming cells

what do osteocytes do

mature bone cells, maintain bone matrix

what do osteoclasts do

bone-dissolving cells

what is flexion

joint angle DECREASE

what is extension

joint angle INCREASE

what is abduction

move AWAY from midline

what is adduction

move TOWARDS midline

what is ingestion

occurs when food enters oral cavity

what is digestion

breaking of food into nutrient molecules, propelling food along digestive tract

what is absorption

movement of nutrients into bloodstream

what is defecation

movement of indigestible waste

what does oral cavity do

1. ingestion, mechanical digestion with accessory organs (teeth and tongue)

2. moistening, mixing with salivary secretions

3. sensory analysis

what does the pharynx do

1. common passageways for food and air

2. muscular propulsion of materials into the esophagus

what does the esophagus do

transport of material to stomach

what is mucosa

inner mucous membrane layer modified according to the digestive organ

what is submucosa

broad bond of loose connective tissues that contains nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels

what is lumen

central space containing food being digested

what is serusa

thin, outermost tissue that is visceral peritoneum

what is muscularis

two layers of smooth muscles

what is peristalsis

alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI tract

what is segmentation

movement of materials back and forth to foster mixing in the small intestine

what is bile

emulsify fats by physically breaking large fats globules into smaller ones

what is pancreatic juice

exocrine pancreas produces digestive enzyme

how does digestion work

1. intestinal enzymes + pancreatic enzymes= complete digestion of all food groups in the small intestine

2. monosaccharides glucose, galactose, fructose, and amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi while fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the lacteals of the villi via the portal vein to the liver

3. transported to the systemic circulation via lymphs

functions of large intestine

1. no digestive enzymes produced

2. large intestine finishes absorption of vitamins and water

3. synthesis certain vitamins like K and B

4. forms feces

5. eliminate feces from body

how are carbs absorbed

monosaccharide glucose, galactose, fructose enter the capillary blood in the villi are transported to the liver via the hepactic portal vein

how are protein being absorbed

amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepactic portal vein

how are fats being absorbed

• fatty acids and monogylcerides are transported to the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct

• gylcerol and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into the capillary blood in the villi and then transported to the liver via the hepactic portal vein

what is the monomer for

1. carbs

2. lipids

3. nucleic acid

4. protein

(these are polymers)

1. monosaccharide

2. fatty acids

3. nuclectide

4. amino acids

new functions of carbs that idk of

1. short term energy storage

2. metabolic intermediate (galactose, fructose)

3. components of essential molecules like nucleic acids, glyco-proteins, glyco-lipids)

what is GI

indicates how fast ones body can convert carbs into glucose

functions of lipids

1. serves as energy stones and forms components of cell membranes

2. insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents

how are lipids digested

• aided by emulsification

• bile acids contain bile salts that are amphiphatic thus being able to emulsify lipid globules into smaller droplets (micelles) for enzymes to act on

new functions of proteins that idk of

1. transport

2. catalytic enzymes

3. storage

4. sensory

5. regulatory

6. contractile

7. defense

what are catalytic enzymes/ organic catalysts

(substrate: molecule acted upon by an enzyme)

1. enzyme-substrate concentration

2. salt concentration

3. pH

4. temperature

low: inactive

high: denature

5. presence of inhibitors: binds competively/ non-competitively

competitively: competitive inhibitor interferes with active site of enzymes so substrate cannot bind

non-competitively: changes shape of enzymes so cannot bind to substrate

what are the four structures of proteins

1. pri

2. sec

3. teritiary

4. quaternary

3&4 have same structure but 4 have additional bonds holding both chains together

what are elements of nucleic acids

1. C

2. H

3. O

4. N

5. phosphate

what are the characteristics of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

• monomer: deoxyribonucleotides

• pentose sugar: deoxyribose sugar

• nitrogenus base: Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine

• structure: double-stranded

• function:

1. determines inherited characteristics

2. directs protein synthesis

3. controls enzyme production

4. controls metabolism

what are the characteristics of ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• monomer: ribonucleotide

• pentose sugar: ribose sugar

• nitrogenuous base: Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, Cytosine

• structure: single-stranded

• function: controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis

what are the types of RNA

1. ribosomal RNA

2. messenger RNA

3. transfer RNA

4. heteronuclear RNA

what does ribosomal RNA do

structure and functions of ribosomes

what do messenger RNA do

carries message encoded in genes for synthesis of proteins

what do transfer RNA do

carries amino acids during protein synthesis

what do heteronuclear RNA do

precursor form of mRNA (messenger RNA)

what do adrenal gland do

releases hormones like adolsterone which affects kidney function like sodium and water balance

what do kidneys do (main organ of urinary system)

filters blood to produce urine

what do nephrons do

each nephron help filter blood and form urine

what do renal corpuslce do

• made up of glomerulus and glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)

• filtration of blood to produce filtrate (early form of urine)

what do proximal convoluted tubule do (PCT)

reabsorbs water, ions, glucose, amino acids back into blood

wat do nephron loop (loop of Henle) do

reabsorbs water and salt to concentrate the urine

what do distal convoluted tubule (DCT) do

• secretes wastes like ions, toxins, drugs

• reabsorbs some sodium. calcium. and water (controlled by hormones)

what does the collecting duct do

• fine-tunes water and ion balance

• hormones like ADH act here to control water reabsorption

what do papillary duct do

delivers final urine into the minor calyx, eventually leading to the bladder

what is the filtration process

controlled by glomerular capillary pressure and particle size (proteins stay in blood, glucose gets filtered)

what does the urethra do

• release of urine is controlled by two sphincters

• for guys, it carries urine and sperm

• for girls, only urine

what are the two sphincters

1. internal urethral sphincter: involuntary and smooth muscles

2. external urethral sphincter: voluntary and skeletal muscles