centralization in europe

Henry VIII

King of England who broke with the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, or Anglican Church, in order to get a divorce.

Charles V

Ruler of both the Holy Roman Empire and the Spanish Empire, he was a key figure in the 16th-century struggle against the Protestant Reformation and Ottoman expansion.

Queen Elizabeth I

English monarch who ruled during the late 16th century, known for her moderate religious policies and for defeating the Spanish Armada. 2nd daughter of henry.

Queen Isabella & Ferdinand

Rulers of Spain who unified the country, sponsored Columbus's voyages, fight Ottomans and initiated the Spanish Inquisition to enforce religious conformity.

Spanish Armada

A massive fleet of Spanish ships sent to invade England in 1588, which was famously defeated, marking a turning point in naval power.

Hapsburgs

A powerful European royal family that controlled vast territories, including the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, from the 13th to the 20th century.

Holy Roman Empire

A complex , decentralized, and fragmented union of territories in Central Europe that existed from the 9th to the early 19th century, with a title often held by the Hapsburgs.

Louis XIV

The "Sun King" of France, he was an absolute monarch who centralized power, built the Palace of Versailles, and engaged in numerous wars to expand French influence.

Edict of Nantes

A decree issued by Henry IV of France in 1598 that granted religious freedom to Protestants (Huguenots), which was later revoked by Louis XIV.

Thirty Years' War

A devastating European conflict from 1618 to 1648, initially a religious war between Protestants and Catholics, but later involving major European powers fighting for political dominance.

Divine Right

The belief that a monarch's power comes directly from God and is not subject to earthly authority, often used to justify absolutism.

Palace of Versailles

A lavish royal residence built by Louis XIV outside of Paris, serving as the center of French political power and a symbol of absolute monarchy.

Huguenots

French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin and were often persecuted by the Catholic majority.

Protestant Reformation

A 16th-century religious movement initiated by Martin Luther that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the creation of various Protestant churches.

Martin Luther

A German monk whose 95 Theses sparked the Protestant Reformation, arguing against the sale of indulgences and other Catholic practices.

95 Theses

A list of grievances written by Martin Luther in 1517, protesting against the sale of indulgences and calling for church reform.

Indulgences

In the Catholic Church, a pardon for sins sold by the clergy, a practice that was a major point of contention for Martin Luther.

Erasmus

A Dutch Renaissance humanist who was a leading scholar and critic of the Catholic Church, though he remained a Catholic and did not join the Protestant Reformation.

John Calvin

A French theologian during the Protestant Reformation who developed Calvinism, a system of Christian theology that emphasized predestination.

Predestination

The Calvinist belief that God has already determined who will be saved and who will be condemned, regardless of their actions.

Puritans

A group of English Protestants who sought to "purify" the Church of England of its Catholic practices and traditions.

Anglican Church

The Church of England, established by Henry VIII, which blended Protestant theology with Catholic ceremonies and structures.

Counter-Reformation (Catholic Reformation)

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming the Church from within and combating the spread of Protestantism.

Ignatius Loyola

A Spanish priest and founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a key organization in the Counter-Reformation dedicated to education and missionary work.

Spanish Inquisition

A brutal religious tribunal established by Ferdinand and Isabella to enforce Catholic orthodoxy in Spain and expel or convert Jews and Muslims.

Jesuits

A male religious congregation of the Catholic Church, founded by Ignatius Loyola, known for their missionary work all around the world and educational institutions, counter the protestant reformation.

Johannes Gutenberg

A German inventor who developed the printing press with movable type, revolutionizing the spread of information.

Printing Press

An invention by Johannes Gutenberg that allowed for the mass production of books and pamphlets, accelerating the spread of ideas, including those of the Protestant Reformation.

Vernacular

The common language of a region or country, as opposed to a classical language like Latin. The printing press helped to popularize the use of the vernacular in literature.

Protestantism

One of the three major branches of Christianity, originating from the Protestant Reformation, which emphasizes the Bible as the sole source of religious authority.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements, leading to a revival of classical literature and art.

Council of Trent

A series of meetings of the Catholic Church from 1545 to 1563 that addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and reaffirmed key Catholic doctrines.

Absolutism

A political system in which a single ruler, such as a king or queen, has complete control over the government and the lives of the people.

Little Ice Age

A period of regional cooling in the Northern Hemisphere from the 14th to the 19th century, leading to agricultural difficulties, famine, and social instability.

Principalities

Small, independent states or territories ruled by a boyar or prince, which was a common political structure in early medieval Russia.

Peter the Great

A czar of Russia from the late 17th to early 18th century who undertook a program of Westernization to modernize and reform the country's military, economy, and culture.

Eastern Orthodox Church

A branch of Christianity that split from the Roman Catholic Church and became the dominant religion in Russia, heavily influencing its culture and political life.

St. Basil's Cathedral

A famous 16th-century Orthodox church in Moscow built during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, known for its colorful, onion-shaped domes.

St. Petersburg

The new capital city founded by Peter the Great on the Baltic Sea, built with Western European architectural styles as a symbol of Russia's new orientation toward Europe.

Winter Palace

The official residence of the Russian monarchs in St. Petersburg, which served as the seat of the Russian Empire for nearly 150 years.

Golden Horde

A Mongol khanate that ruled over vast territories of medieval Russia for over 200 years, from the 13th to the 15th centuries, exacting tribute and heavily influencing Russian political development.

Westernization

A policy initiated by Peter the Great aimed at adopting Western European technologies, customs, and ideas to modernize Russia.

Slavophilism

A 19th-century Russian intellectual movement that opposed Westernization and promoted a return to traditional Russian values and institutions, especially those of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Czar/Tsar

The title of the male ruler of Russia, derived from the Latin word "Caesar," symbolizing the idea of a supreme, divinely appointed ruler.

Ivan III (The Great)

The Grand Prince of Moscow who freed Russia from the Golden Horde's control and laid the foundations for a unified Russian state.

Kremlin

A fortified complex in the heart of Moscow, which served as the official residence of the czar and the center of Russian government, church, etc.

Ivan IV (The Terrible)

The first officially crowned Czar of Russia, known for his expansion of Russian territory, his brutal rule, and his use of terror to consolidate power.

Siberia

The vast, frigid eastern part of Russia, which was a major site of Russian territorial expansion and was often used as a place of exile for political prisoners.

Cossacks

A group of skilled horsemen and warriors who played a key role in the expansion of the Russian Empire into Siberia and other territories.

Time of Troubles

A period of political instability, famine, and foreign invasion in Russia following the end of the Rurik dynasty, which was eventually resolved by the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty.

Romanov Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty to rule Russia, from 1613 until the Russian Revolution in 1917, which included notable rulers like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great.

Catherine the Great

An empress of Russia in the late 18th century who continued the policy of Westernization and significantly expanded the Russian Empire's territory. Absolutism

Pugachev Rebellion

A massive peasant uprising led by a Cossack named Yemelyan Pugachev in the 1770s against the rule of Catherine the Great, which was brutally suppressed.

Boyars

The aristocratic landowners and nobles in medieval Russia, who held significant power until their influence was reduced by rulers like Ivan the Terrible.

Serfdom

A system of forced labor in Russia where peasants were legally bound to the land and subjected to the authority of their landlords.

Pogroms

Violent attacks on Jewish communities in the Russian Empire, often encouraged or tolerated by the government, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Michael Romanov

The first czar of the Romanov Dynasty, whose ascension to the throne in 1613 ended the Time of Troubles.

Partition of Poland

The division of Polish territory by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the late 18th century, which resulted in Poland's disappearance as an independent state.