Sociology Test Chapters 1-4

All information is either directly transferred from the PowerPoints from Weeks 1-4 and Chapters 1-4 in the Textbook or paraphrased :)

The study of social behaviour and human groups

Focuses on:

• How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behaviour

• How societies are established and changed

What is ‘sociology’?

• The awareness of relationship between an individual and the wider society

• Ability to view our own society as an outsider would, rather than from perspective of our limited experiences and cultural biases

What is the ‘sociological imagination’?

False

“Common sense” is not always reliable

True or False, when faced with natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes, people panic and social organization disintegrates

• A set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions or behaviour

• Effective theories should explain and/or predict

Define ‘theory’.

A model constructed for evaluating specific cases

Define ‘ideal type’.

The German word for ‘understanding’ or ‘insight’; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account people’s emotions, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes

What is ‘verstehen’?

The Sociological Imagination

What did C. Wright Mills contribute to Sociology?

• The “Father of Sociology”

• Coined the term Sociology to apply to the science of human behaviour

• Believed that a theoretical science of society and systematic investigation of behaviour were needed to improve society

What did Auguste Comte contribute to Sociology?

• Offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of Britain and North America

• Gave special attention to social class distinctions and factors such as gender and race

• An author of books such as Society in America

• Advocated for the rights of women, emancipation of slaves, and religious tolerance

What did Harriet Martineau contribute to Sociology?

• Did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; instead, he merely hoped to understand it better

• Applied the concept of evolution of species in order to explain how societies change, or evolve, over time

• Wrote articles such as “A Theory of Population, Deduced Fom the General Law of Animal Fertility”

• Suggested that societies are bound to change eventually; therefore, no one need be highly critical of present social arrangements

What did Herbert Spencer contribute to Sociology?

• Pioneered work on suicide

• Insisted behaviour must be understood within a larger social context

• Coined the term anomie: the loss of direction that a society feels when social control has become ineffective

What did Emile Durkheim contribute to Sociology?

• Coined the term ‘ideal type’: constructed for evaluating specific cases

• Believed that to fully comprehend behaviour, we must learn the subjective meaning people attach to their actions

• Promoted Verstehen: the German word for ‘understanding’ or ‘insight’; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account people’s emotions, thoughts, beliefs and attitudes

What did Max Weber contribute to Sociology?

• Pioneered the Conflict Perspective

• Wrote the Communist Manifesto

• Emphasized the importance of economy and conflict in society

• Observed that society was divided between classes; identified conflict between the proletariat and bourgeoisie

• Believed the working class needed to overthrow the existing class system

What did Karl Marx contribute to Sociology?

• Looking-Glass Self theory

• Preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units- intimate, face-to-face groups, such as families, gangs and friendship networks

• Saw these groups as the seedbeds of society in the sense that they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values and social nature

What did Charles Horton Cooley contribute to Sociology?

• Active member of the American Sociological Society

• Co-founded the Chicago settlement, Hull House

• Alongside Ida B. Wells, successfully prevented the implementation of a racial segregation policy in the Chicago public schools

• Made efforts to establish a juvenile court system and women’s trade union

What did Jane Addams contribute to Sociology?

• Successfully combined theory and research

• Produced a theory that us one if the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior

• Emphasized that sociology should strive to bring together the “macro-level” and the “micro-level” approaches to the study of sociology

What did Robert Merton contribute to Sociology?

• Established a strong foundation for the examination of Canada from a political economy perspective

• Innis rejected existing interpretations of Canadian society and theorized about the relationship between the extraction of products and the development of the Canadian state

• Innis wrote works such as A History of the Canadian Pacific Railway

• Clark wrote works such as The Social Development of Canada

• Clark’s work helped win increasing respect for sociology as a discipline in Canada and is credited with establishing the Department of Sociology at the University of Toronto

What did Harold Innis and S.D. Clark contribute to Sociology?

• Provided a formative examination of social inequality as it relates to race, ethnicity, social class, and gender in Canada

• Depicted Canada as a “mosaic” of cultures

• Revealed the existence of a hierarchy among ethnic groups in which the charter groups (French and British) occupied the top socioeconomic positions, then followed by other Northern Europeans, then Southern and Eastern Europeans, then the visible-minority groups

• Referred to these non-charter groups as entrance groups

What did John Porter contribute to Sociology?

• Credited with contributing to the founding of an indigenous Canadian sociology

• Researched topics such as religion, sports, social inequality, gender, voluntary association activity, social values and voting

• Inducted as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada

What did Jim Curtis contribute to Sociology?

• Key figure in developing the Functionalist Theory

• Saw society as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole

• His approach holds that if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society’s stability or survival- if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote value consensus among members of society- it will not be passed from one generation to the next

What did Talcott Parsons contribute to Sociology?

• Argues for a sociology that is built on the everyday experiences of women, and points out how sociology used to ignore these experiences

• Wrote The Everyday World as a Problematic which helped students of sociology see the everyday world from the standpoint of women

What did Dorothy Smith contribute to Sociology?

• Among the first sociologists in the country to examine the ways in which sexism can influence research in social science

• Examined sexist language and concepts, the androcentric perspective, and sexist methodology and interpretations of results

What did Margrit Eichler contribute to Sociology?

• A Symbolic Interactionist

• Studies the social world according to how people make sense out of their day-to-day lived experiences

What did Robert Prus contribute to Sociology?

• Widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective

• Best known for the Theory of Self

• Used the terms significant others and generalized other

What did George Herbert Mead contribute to Sociology?

• double consciousness: the division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities

• Conducted research in hopes to assist in the struggle for a racially egalitarian society

• Believed knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice

What did W.E.B. DuBois contribute to Sociology?

• Presentation of the Self theory

• Popularized the dramaturgical approach, which compares everyday life to a theatre or stage setting, in which we are all actors playing different roles (ex: teacher, mother, friend, etc.)

What did Erving Goffman contribute to Sociology?

Believed that capital was not just material goods, but cultural and social assets:

• cultural capital is non-economic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in knowledge of language and the arts

• social capital is the collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust

What did Pierre Bourdieau contribute to Sociology?

Macrosociology:

• The Functionalist Perspective

• The Conflict Perspective

• The Feminist Perspective

Microsociology:

• The Interactionist Perspective

What are the four major theoretical perspectives?

• Macrosociology

• Emphasizes that parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability

• Think: well-oiled machine

• Generally more conservative with their views

What is the Functionalist Perspective?

• Macrosociology

• Conflict or tension between competing groups over scarce resources

• Conflict isn’t necessarily violent (ex: proletariat vs bourgeoisie)

What is the Conflict Perspective?

• gender and sex

• race and ethnicity

• age

• social class

• education

What are examples of ‘social factors’?

• There is no one feminist perspective; can be macro or micro

• View inequality in gender as central to all behaviour and organization

• Seeks equality for all peoples

What is the Feminist Perspective?

• Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to understand society as a whole

• Sociological framework for viewing human beings as living in a world of meaningful objects

• Note: Identified by the presence of the following language: social definitions, social labels, social meaning, social symbols, and social language

What is the Interactionist Perspective?

The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation

Define ‘science’.

Natural science:

the study of physical features and the ways they interact and change (ex: biology, chemistry, etc.)

Social science:

the study of various aspects of human society (ex: sociology, psychology, etc.)

Name and describe the two types of sciences.

Open, stated, conscious functions of institutions

(Ex: A college or university certifying academic competence and excellence)

What is a ‘manifest function’?

Unconscious, unintended functions of institutions and may reflect hidden purposes

(Ex: A college or university introducing you to friends and potential partners)

What is a ‘latent function’?

An element or process that may disrupt a social system or lead to decreased stability

What are ‘dysfunctions’?

A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied with consumer goods and media images

What is a ‘post-modern society’?

A condition in which members of society have differing amounts wealth, prestige or power

What is ‘social inequality’?

Anything that ends with the word “system”

• political

• healthcare

• criminal justice

• education

• family

• media/technology

What are examples of ‘social institutions’?

Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

What is the ‘scientific method’?

1. Reviewing the literature

2. Formulating a hypothesis

3. Collecting and analyzing data

4. Developing the conclusion

What are the four steps of the scientific method?

• Refines the problem under study, clarifies possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminates or reduces avoidable mistakes

• Literature: relevant scholarly studies and information that pertain to the subject you are researching

What occurs at the ‘reviewing the literature’ stage of the scientific method?

Creating a hypothesis to then be studied using the scientific method

Hypothesis: speculative statement about relationship between two or more factors known as variables

What occurs at the ‘formulating the hypothesis’ stage of the scientific method?

Determining the research design to be used to collect and analyze the data

What occurs at the ‘collecting and analyzing data’ stage of the scientific method?

Look at the results determined by the data collected

Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis

What occurs at the ‘developing the conclusion’ stage of the scientific method?

A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

What is a ‘research design’?

• Surveys

• Interviews

• Participant observation

• Experiments

What are the major research designs of the scientific method?

To use multiple research designs in a single study

What is the ‘triangulation method’?

Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

What is ‘quantitative research’?

Relies on what is seen in the field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities rather than whole groups and large nations

What is ‘qualitative research’?

An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept

What is an ‘operational definition’?

A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change in different conditions

What are ‘variables’?

• Independent variable: the variable hypothesized to cause or influence another

• Dependent variable: its action depends on the influence of the independent variable

Name and describe the two types of variables.

A factor held to a constant to test the relative impact of the independent variable

What is a ‘control variable’?

Involves the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence with one event leading to the other

What is ‘casual logic’?

• When a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other

• Correlation does not equal causation

What is ‘correlation’?

• A selection from a greater population that is statistically representative of the popultion

• In a random sample, every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected

What is a ‘sample’?

The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study

What is ‘validity’?

The extent to which a measure produces consistent results

What is ‘reliability’?

Subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher

What is an ‘experimental group’?

Subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher

What is a ‘control group’?

The experimental group is exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher, while the control group is not

What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?

The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork

What is ‘ethnography’?

The unintended influences that observers or experimenters can have on their subjects

What is the ‘Hawthorne Effect’?

A variety of research and techniques that make use of a previously collected and publicly accessible information and data

What is ‘secondary analysis’?

The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

What is ‘content analysis’?

The standards of acceptable behaviour developed by and for members of a profession

What is a ‘code of ethics’?

• Protecting people in the research environment (respect the rights of a participant’s privacy, safety, confidentiality and anonymity)

• Organizing and initiating research (protect vulnerable or subordinate populations from harm incurred, knowingly and unknowingly)

• Informed consent

• Covert research and deception (subjects should not be deceived if there is any reasonably anticipated risk)

What does the CSAA code of ethics cover?

Objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data

What is ‘value neutrality’?

The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behaviours

What is ‘culture’?

Common practices and beliefs across all societies and cultures

What are 'cultural universals’?

The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture

What is ‘innovation’?

Making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality, for example, discovering DNA

What is ‘discovery’?

When existing cultural items are combined into a form that did not exist before, for example, inventing T.V.

What is ‘invention’?

The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group, or society to society

What is ‘diffusion’?

Worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trades and the exchange of ideas

What is ‘globalization’?

Ways of using material objects

• Customs

• Beliefs

• Government

• Patterns of communication

• Philosophies

What is ‘non-material culture’?

Physical or technological aspects of our daily lives

• Food

• Houses

• Factorie

• Raw materials

What is ‘material culture’?

• Abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture

• Includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and gestures and expressions of nonverbal communication

What is ‘language’?

The period of maladjustment when non-material culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions

What is ‘culture lag’?

• Use of gestures, facial expressions and other images to communicate

• Not the same in all cultures

• Learned just as we learn other forms of language

What is ‘nonverbal communication’?

Established standards of behaviour maintained by a society

What are ‘norms’?

• Formal norms: generally written down; specify strict punishment for violations

• Informal norms: generally understood but not precisely recorded

• Mores: norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society, often because they embody the most cherished principles of a people

• Folkways: norms governing everyday behaviour

Name and describe the four types of norms.

Penalties and rewards for conduct concerning social norms

What are ‘sanctions’?

• Collective conceptions of what is good, desirable and proper - or bad, undesirable and improper - in a culture

• Influences people’s behaviour

• Criteria for evaluating the actions of others

What are ‘values’?

• The set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic and political interests

• Control the means of producing beliefs about reality through religion, education and the media

What is a ‘dominant ideology’?

• A segment of society that shares distinctive patterns of mores, folkways and values that differs from the larger society

• A culture existing within a larger dominant culture

What is a ‘subculture’?

Specialized language that distinguishes a subculture from the wider society

What is 'argot’?

A subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture

What is a ‘counter culture’?

Feeling disoriented, uncertain, out of place or fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar culture

What is ‘culture shock’?

A policy that promotes cultural and racial diversity and full and equal participation of individuals and communities of all origins as a fundamental characteristic of Canadian identity

What is ‘multiculturalism’?

Tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represents the norm or is superior to all the others

What is ‘ethnocentrism’?

Domination of European cultural patterns in Canada

What is ‘eurocentrism’?

Belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are superior to those that originate elsewhere

What is ‘xenocentrism’?

The influence or imposition of the material or non-material elements of a culture on another culture or cultures

What is ‘cultural imperialism’?

Views people’s behaviours from the perspective of their own culture

What is ‘cultural relativism’?

• A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping cultures. It holds that language is culturally determined and serves to influence our mode of thought.

• Describes the role of language in interpreting our world

• Since people can conceptualize the world only through thought, language precedes thought

• Language is not a “given”; it is culturally determined and leads to different interpretations of reality by focusing our attention on certain phenomenon

What is the ‘Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis’?

The process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviour appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture

What is ‘socialization’?