Anatomy and Physiology: Key Concepts (Ch.1-4)

A comprehensive set of practice flashcards covering chapters on introduction to anatomy, cells, tissues, integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, and nervous system. Each card poses a question and provides a concise answer based on the lecture notes.

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of the human body.

What is physiology?

The study of body function.

What is the basis of anatomical terminology and its purpose?

Based on ancient Greek or Latin; provides standard nomenclature worldwide.

What are the main branches of anatomy?

Gross anatomy; microscopic anatomy (histology); surface anatomy; developmental anatomy (embryology); pathological anatomy; radiographic anatomy; functional morphology.

What is gross anatomy?

The study of large structures visible to the naked eye.

What is microscopic anatomy (histology)?

The study of tissues at the cellular level.

What is the hierarchy of structural organization from simplest to most complex?

Chemical level → cellular level → tissue level → organ level → organ system → organismal level.

What is systemic anatomy?

Study of anatomy by system.

What is regional anatomy?

Study of anatomy by region.

What are the major functions of the integumentary system?

Forms external covering; protects tissues; synthesizes vitamin D; contains cutaneous receptors; houses sweat and oil glands.

What are the major functions of the skeletal system?

Protects and supports organs; provides framework for muscles; blood cells form in bones; stores minerals.

What are the major functions of the muscular system?

Allows manipulation of the environment; locomotion; facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.

What does the nervous system do?

Fast-acting control system; responds to internal and external changes.

What does the endocrine system do?

Glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use.

What does the cardiovascular system do?

Blood vessels transport blood; heart pumps blood; carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, wastes.

What does the lymphatic/immunity system do?

Picks up tissue fluid; disposes of debris; houses lymphocytes; mounts defense against foreign substances.

What do the respiratory and digestive systems do?

Respiratory: supplies oxygen and removes CO2; Digestive: breaks down food for absorption and eliminates indigestible material.

What do the urinary and reproductive systems do?

Urinary: eliminates wastes and regulates balance; Reproductive: produces offspring and hormones.

What is anatomical position?

Body standing erect, feet together, eyes forward; palms facing anteriorly with thumbs pointed away from the body.

What are the directional terms used in anatomical position?

Anterior/Posterior; Ventral/Dorsal; Lateral/Medial/Median; Superior/Inferior; Proximal/Distal; Cephalic/Caudal.

What are the axial and appendicular regional terms?

Axial region is the body's main axis; Appendicular region includes the limbs.

What is the coronal (frontal) plane?

Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

What is the median (midsagittal) plane?

Vertical plane that lies in the midline and divides the body into left and right halves.

What is the transverse plane?

Horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

What are the main body cavities and membranes?

Dorsal cavity (cranial and vertebral); Ventral cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic) with serous membranes (parietal/visceral); mucous, oral, nasal cavities; serosae (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

What are the abdominal regions and quadrants?

Nine-region plan and four-quadrant plan: right/left upper and lower quadrants.

What is microscopic anatomy?

Study of tissues and cells using a microscope and staining techniques.

What are the two main types of microscopes used in histology?

Light microscopy and electron microscopy.

What is the plasma membrane and its main features?

Defines cell boundary; fluid mosaic model; phospholipid bilayer; integral and peripheral proteins; selectively permeable.

What is osmosis?

Diffusion of water across a membrane.

What is endocytosis and exocytosis?

Endocytosis brings substances into the cell (phagocytosis/pinocytosis); exocytosis moves substances out via vesicles.

What is clathrin’s role in endocytosis?

Protein that induces membrane bending to form a coated pit and vesicle.

What are the main cytoplasmic organelles and their functions?

Ribosomes (protein synthesis); rough ER (protein synthesis); smooth ER (lipid synthesis); Golgi (modifies and packages); lysosomes (digestion); peroxisomes (detox, fatty acid breakdown); mitochondria (energy); cytoskeleton (cell support).

What is the nucleus and its components?

Control center; contains DNA; nuclear envelope; chromatin; chromosomes; nucleolus.

What is transcription?

Copying DNA’s genetic code onto mRNA within extended chromatin form.

What are the phases of the cell cycle?

Interphase (G1, S, G2) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).

What happens during mitosis (stages)?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase; followed by cytokinesis.

What is a motor unit?

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

What is the sliding filament theory?

Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other during contraction; I and H bands shorten; A band remains the same length.

What is a sarcomere?

The basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber; between two Z-discs.

What are the three muscle tissue types and their features?

Skeletal: voluntary, striated, multinucleated; Cardiac: branched, striated, intercalated discs; Smooth: non-striated, involuntary.

What are the three layers of connective tissue around skeletal muscle from outside to inside?

Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium.

What are the terms for the muscle cell membrane and cytoplasm?

Sarcolemma is the muscle cell membrane; sarcoplasm is the muscle cell cytoplasm.

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what is a triad?

SR stores calcium; triad = T-tubule plus two terminal cisterns, key to Ca2+ release during contraction.

What is a neuromuscular junction?

The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber; acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter involved.

What is acetylcholinesterase?

Enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine to stop muscle contraction.

What is the motor unit and how does it affect precision?

A motor neuron and all the fibers it innervates; more fibers per neuron mean less precise control.

What is the origin of a muscle?

The attachment to the more stationary bone.

What is the insertion of a muscle?

The attachment to the movable bone.

What nerve supplies the muscles of facial expression?

The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII).

Which muscles form the major muscle groups of the jaw (mastication)?

Masseter and temporalis are primary movers of jaw closure.

What is the diaphragm and its role in respiration?

The primary muscle of inspiration, separating thoracic and abdominal cavities.

What are the abdominal muscles from superficial to deep?

External oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis.

What is the rectus abdominis’ main action?

Flexes the vertebral column and compresses the abdomen.

What are the major muscles of the upper limb mentioned?

Biceps brachii (flexion and supination); triceps brachii (extension); deltoid (abduction, flexion, extension).

What is a nerve plexus and which regions contain them?

A network of nerves formed by ventral rami; cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.

What is a dermatome?

Area of skin innervated by cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve.

What are shingles and myasthenia gravis?

Shingles: varicella zoster reactivation affecting sensory nerves; Myasthenia gravis: autoimmune destruction of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction.

What are major spinal tracts and what does decussation mean?

Ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts; many cross midline (decussate) while some do not; tract origin is contralateral to destination.

What are the meninges and their order protecting the spinal cord?

Dura mater (outer), arachnoid mater (middle), pia mater (inner).

What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and its functions?

Fills brain and spinal cord cavities; cushions; nourishes; removes wastes; transmits signals.

What are the basic structural components of the PNS?

Sensory receptors, motor endings, nerves, and ganglia.

What are free nerve endings and encapsulated nerve endings?

Free nerve endings detect general senses; encapsulated endings are specialized receptors (mechanoreceptors) with connective tissue wrapping.

What are Meissner’s and Pacinian corpuscles?

Meissner’s: light touch in dermal papillae; Pacinian: deep pressure; rapidly adapting.

What are proprioceptors and their types?

Monitor stretch in locomotory organs; muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, joint kinesthetic receptors.

What are the 31 spinal nerves and their regions?

Cervical (C1–C8); Thoracic (T1–T12); Lumbar (L1–L5); Sacral (S1–S5); Coccyeal (Co1).

What is a nerve root and dorsal/ventral roots?

Dorsal root carries sensory fibers; ventral root carries motor fibers.

What is a nerve plexus and which regions form them?

A network of nerves formed by ventral rami (except T2–T12); cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.

What is the dermatome innervation of the limbs?

Upper limb: brachial plexus; Lower limb: lumbar and sacral nerves.

What are common CNS and PNS disorders mentioned?

Shingles (herpes zoster); Migraine; Myasthenia gravis.

What are the major components of the CNS and PNS?

CNS = brain and spinal cord; PNS = nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.

What is the blood-brain barrier?

Selective barrier formed by capillary specializations and astrocytes to protect the brain.