Ideology

Glob 120 ideologies

Question

Answer

Why is ideology considered 'the most elusive concept in the social sciences'?

Because it is used in many different and sometimes contradictory ways across disciplines. Scholars disagree whether it refers to a neutral system of ideas, a tool of domination, or a worldview. Its definitions have evolved over centuries, making it difficult to pin down precisely.

Who described ideology as 'the most elusive concept in the social sciences'?

David McLellan in 1995 described ideology this way, emphasizing how it has been reinterpreted and contested throughout history by philosophers, economists, and political theorists.

Why is the concept of ideology debated among scholars?

Because it sits at the intersection of ideas, power, and material reality. Some scholars argue politics is driven by beliefs and values (idealism), while others, such as Marxists, claim material and economic conditions shape those beliefs (materialism).

How can ideology function as a weapon in politics?

Political actors often use 'ideology' as a label to dismiss rivals' ideas as biased or dangerous while portraying their own views as neutral or 'common sense.' Thus, calling something ideological can be a form of critique or delegitimization.

How do ideologies shape political life?

Ideologies provide blueprints for how power should be organized and used. They define political goals, justify economic systems, and unite people around shared beliefs. They also influence institutions, policy design, and the moral language of public life.

What does John Maynard Keynes’s quote about 'practical men' reveal about ideology?

Keynes argued that people who see themselves as purely pragmatic are often guided unconsciously by the ideas of earlier thinkers. His quote suggests that ideology operates beneath awareness, shaping actions and assumptions even when individuals think they are being objective.

Where did the term 'ideology' originate, and what did it originally mean?

The term was coined during the French Revolution by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, who defined it as the 'science of ideas.' He and other Enlightenment thinkers hoped to create a rational, scientific study of human thought that could guide politics toward reason and progress.

How did Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels reinterpret the concept of ideology?

Marx and Engels argued that ideology reflects the interests of the ruling economic class. For them, dominant ideas are not neutral—they serve to justify the power of the bourgeoisie by creating a 'false consciousness' among the working class, obscuring the realities of exploitation.

What is 'false consciousness' according to Marx and Engels?

It is a distorted understanding of social and economic relations that prevents the working class from recognizing its true interests. Through ideology, people come to accept social hierarchies as natural or inevitable rather than constructed to serve the ruling class.

What did Antonio Gramsci mean by 'hegemony'?

Gramsci, an Italian Marxist thinker, expanded Marx’s theory by arguing that domination is maintained not only through coercion but also through cultural and ideological consent. 'Hegemony' describes the way the ruling class’s worldview becomes accepted as common sense across society.

What distinction did Karl Mannheim make between 'particular' and 'total' ideologies?

Mannheim differentiated between ideologies held by specific groups ('particular ideologies') and the overarching worldview that shapes an entire society ('total ideology'). He emphasized that every social group’s thinking is conditioned by its social position.

What kind of ideologies did scholars focus on after World War II?

Post-WWII scholars turned their attention to 'totalizing' ideologies such as fascism, Nazism, and communism—systems that sought to explain all aspects of human life and demanded total loyalty. This period highlighted ideology’s dangers when combined with authoritarian power.

How do modern social scientists define ideology?

Modern definitions are more neutral and analytical, viewing ideology as a structured set of ideas guiding collective action rather than simply as propaganda or illusion. Scholars like Seliger and Heywood see ideology as a framework that explains the present, envisions the future, and outlines how to achieve it.

What is Seliger’s definition of ideology?

Michael Seliger defined ideology as 'a set of ideas by which people posit, explain, and justify the ends and means of organized social action,' regardless of whether those actions aim to preserve or transform a social order.

What is Andrew Heywood’s definition of ideology?

Heywood defined ideology as 'a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system.' He sees ideology as both descriptive and prescriptive.

According to Heywood, what are the three core functions of ideology?

1) To explain the existing political and social order (a worldview), 2) To propose a vision of a desired future, and 3) To outline a plan or strategy for political change. These three steps connect analysis, values, and action.

What is the relationship between ideology, theory, and praxis?

Ideology links abstract theory to practical action (praxis). Movements and leaders translate ideas into concrete political goals, turning belief systems into organized behavior through activism, policy, or revolution.

Who are 'movement entrepreneurs,' and what do they do?

Movement entrepreneurs are leaders or activists who translate abstract issues into compelling public causes. They connect social problems to people’s lived experiences and moral beliefs, making ideology emotionally and culturally resonant.

What are 'folk ideas,' and why are they important to ideological movements?

Folk ideas are widely shared cultural assumptions about what is 'good, just, or proper.' Successful ideological movements tap into these everyday moral beliefs, framing their causes in language people already find meaningful.

Why might leaders’ visions differ from popular interpretations of ideology?

Leaders often reinterpret ideology to gain support or simplify complex doctrines. Sometimes this divergence is deliberate, as leaders adapt ideas for strategy; other times it happens by mistake as followers reshape ideology through popular culture.

How does the traditional left–right political spectrum organize ideologies?

The left emphasizes equality, social justice, and collective ownership (communism, socialism), while the right emphasizes hierarchy, order, and tradition (conservatism, fascism). Liberalism sits at the center, advocating individual freedom and limited government.

What does the 'horseshoe model' of ideology suggest?

The horseshoe model suggests that the far left and far right, though opposites in theory, can resemble each other in practice through authoritarianism or intolerance. Extremes curve toward each other, forming a 'horseshoe' rather than a straight line.

What are the two axes of the two-dimensional political spectrum?

The model adds a vertical axis—Authority vs. Liberty—to the traditional left-right economic axis. This creates four quadrants: authoritarian left (Stalinism), authoritarian right (New Right), libertarian left (social democracy), and libertarian right (capitalist libertarianism).

How do ideologies like Stalinism and capitalist libertarianism fit into the two-dimensional model?

Stalinism falls under authoritarian left because it combines socialism with centralized state control. Capitalist libertarianism falls under libertarian right, advocating free markets and minimal government intervention.

What distinguishes 'rising up' ideologies from 'pushing down' ones?

'Rising up' ideologies challenge or seek to abolish hierarchies of class, race, or gender, promoting equality and emancipation (e.g., socialism, feminism, anti-colonialism). 'Pushing down' ideologies reinforce or restore hierarchies (e.g., conservatism, nationalism, fascism).

Why is this distinction between 'rising up' and 'pushing down' ideologies important?

It reveals whether an ideology’s purpose is to liberate marginalized groups or to preserve existing power structures. Understanding this helps explain the moral and political conflicts driving global history.

What key questions will be explored in the next lecture on liberalism?

The next lecture examines the origins of liberalism, its definitions of freedom, its historical link to capitalism, its stance on equality (especially gender and identity), and its continuing role in shaping global politics today.