Intellectual Revolutions and Global Scientific Development

This set of flashcards covers the key figures of the scientific revolution, various definitions of science, and the scientific and technological contributions of civilizations in Mesoamerica, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa as described in the lecture notes.

Science as an idea

Includes theories, systematic explanations, and observations about the natural and physical world.

Science as an intellectual activity

A systematic and practical study of the natural world involving observation and experimentation.

Science as a body of knowledge

A subject, discipline, or field of study referred to as school science that deals with learning about the natural world.

Science as a personal and social activity

Knowledge and activities performed by humans to develop a better understanding of the world and improve survival.

Scientific Revolution

A period of enlightenment in the $16^{th}$ to $17^{th}$ Century that transformed societal views on nature through developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry.

Heliocentric Model

The model proposed by Nicholas Copernicus that positioned the Sun as the centerpiece of the universe, with Earth and other planets orbiting it.

Epitome

A book published in $1496$ by Johannes Müeller containing observations of the heavens that strongly influenced Copernicus.

Commentariolus

A manuscript, also known as the Little Commentary, in which Copernicus summarized his ideas for close friends around $1510$.

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

The book published by Copernicus in $1543$ which is often cited as the starting point of the scientific revolution.

The Origin of Species

A seminal scientific book published by Charles Darwin in $1589$ presenting evidence on how species evolved over time through adaptation.

The Descent of Man

A controversial book by Darwin that placed all organic life, including humans, under the realm of evolutionary thinking.

Psychoanalysis

An observational method developed by Sigmund Freud to gather reliable data to study human's inner life and the human mind.

Maya Civilization

An ancient Mesoamerican civilization known for advanced astronomy, the use of temples for observation, and predicting eclipses.

Mayan Hieroglyphics

The writing system developed by the Mayans, one of the first civilizations to use such a system.

Quipu

A system of knotted ropes used by the Inca civilization for record-keeping that only experts could interpret.

Chinampa

Aztec agricultural technology where land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

Ayurveda

A system of traditional medicine originated in ancient India before $2500\text{ BC}$ and still practiced today.

Susruta Samhita

An ancient Indian text that describes various surgical and medical procedures.

Siddhanta Shiromani

A $12^{th}$ century ancient text that includes chapters on the longitudes of planets, eclipses, and conjunctions.

Mohenjo-daro ruler

A measurement tool designed by the Indus Valley Civilization to standardize length with a high degree of accuracy.

Aryabhata

An Indian mathematician and astronomer who introduced trigonometric functions, tables, and algorithms of algebra in his work Aryabhatiya.

Brahmagupta

An Indian scholar who suggested gravity was a force of attraction and explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit.

Madhava of Sangamagrama

The Indian mathematician considered the founder of mathematical analysis.

Acupuncture

A traditional Chinese medical practice used to cure human illness through properties discovered over centuries.

Golden Age of Islam

A period of Muslim scholarship from the $7^{th}$ to the $13^{th}$ century marked by intellectualization and innovations in science and mathematics.

Ibn al-Haytham

A Muslim scientist regarded as the Father of Optics for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

A mathematician whose name gave rise to the concept of the algorithm and whose work led to the term algebra, derived from al-jabr.

Jabir ibn Hayyan

A scholar considered by many to be the Father of Chemistry.

Ibn Sina

A physician who pioneered experimental medicine and clinical trials, authoring The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine.

Alchemy

The medieval forerunner of chemistry, for which ancient Egypt was known as a center.

Lebombo Bone

A mathematical artifact from $35,000\text{ BCE}$ found in Africa, possibly used for multiplication, division, or as a six-month lunar calendar.