BIOL 242 Lecture Exam 1 Ch. 1,3,5,6 - Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology, Cellular Form and Function, Human Tissues, The Integumentary System

Anatomy

study of structure

Physiology

study of function

anatomy details the structure of body parts, while physiology explains how these parts function and interact

How are anatomy and physiology related to each other?

organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, molecule, atom

Levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest:

Homeostasis

the ability to detect change,

activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Negative Feedback

-allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited

range around a set point

-the body senses a change and "negates" or reverses it

-vasoconstriction and vasodilation (thermoreceptors) causes shivering and sweating

-baroreceptors respond to drop in blood pressure when getting out of bed, which send a signal to the cardiac center of brainstem causing the heart to beat faster and blood pressure rises to normal

Example of negative feedback:

negative feedback is crucial in homeostasis because it helps maintain stable internal conditions by counteracting deviations from a set point

Importance of negative feedback in homeostasis:

Positive Feedback

-self-amplifying cycle

-leads to greater

change in the same direction

-normal way of producing rapid

change

childbirth, blood clotting

Examples of the benefits of positive feedback:

-fever: when you have an infection, your body heats up to fight it, but if the temperature keeps rising uncontrollably, it can harm your body.

-cytokine Storm: in some infections or immune disorders, the immune system overreacts, causing too much inflammation that can damage organs and tissues.

Examples of the harmful effects of positive feedback:

Disease

an abnormal state in which the body is not functioning normally

Dynamic Equilibrium

continual adaptation, always changing

Extrinsic Regulation

responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

Gross Anatomy

study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Feedback Loop

receptor, afferent signal, control center, efferent signal, effector

Histology

study of tissues

Homeostatic Regulation

the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

Receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

Afferent Signal

signal going to the spinal cord/brain; by sensory neurons

Integration (Control) Center

interprets sensory input (afferent signal) and dictates motor output

Efferent Signal

nerve impulses carried away from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles or glands

Effector

structure that takes corrective action after receiving efferent signal

Microscopic Anatomy

deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

Principle of Complementarity

function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form

Set Point

ideal or normal value that a physiological parameter, like body temperature or blood glucose levels, is maintained at by homeostatic mechanisms

d

Which of the following is NOT an essential part of anatomical position?

a. feet together

b. feet flat on the floor

c. palms forward

d. mouth closed

e. arms down to the sides

distal

The tarsal region is ___ to the popliteal region

a

Which of the following regions is not part of the upper limb?

a. plantar

b. carpal

c. cubital

d. brachial

e. palmar

contralateral

If two organs are on opposite sides of the body, we say they are ____ to each other

meninges

The cranial cavity is lined by membranes call the ____

retroperitoneal

Organs that lie within the abdominal cavity but not within the peritoneal cavity are said to have a ___ position

medial

The sternal region is ___ to the pectoral region

the knee is proximal to the ankle (tarsal) region

What is wrong with this statement?

The knee is distal to the tarsal region

the sigmoid colon is in the lower left quadrant

What is wrong with this statement?

The sigmoid colon is in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen

1.) all organisms composed of cells and cell products

2.) the cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life

3.) an organism's structure and functions are due to activities of cells

4.) cells come only from preexisting cells, one generation to the next

What are the modern tenets of the cell theory?

form a flexible bilayer that acts as a barrier, regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell while maintaining membrane fluidity

Function of the lipid in the plasma membrane:

facilitate various functions, including transport of molecules, acting as receptors for signaling, and providing structural support and cell-cell communication

Function of the protein in the plasma membrane:

function in cell recognition and communication by forming glycoproteins and glycolipids that interact with other cells and extracellular molecules

Function of the carbohydrate in the plasma membrane:

allows specific substances to pass through while restricting others, thus regulating the movement of materials into and out of a cell

What is meant by selectively permeable membrane?

98, 75, 2

The plasma membrane is made up of about ___% lipids, ___% of which are phospholipids and ___% protein

Active Transport

ATP/energy needed to, substance moves against gradient

Antiport/countertransport

carrier that moves two or more solutes in opposite directions

ex: sodium-potassium pump

Aquaporins

water channel proteins

Carrier-mediated Transport

mechanisms that use a membrane protein to transport substances across a membrane

Saturation Limits

rate depends upon availability of transport proteins and substrates, reaches transport max: rate plateaus

Specificity

one transport protein, one set of substrates

Cell Adhesion Molecule (CAM)

binds one cell to another

Cell Identity Marker

a glycoprotein acting as a cell-identity marker distinguishing the body's own cells from foreign cells

Channel

constantly open and allows solutes to pass into and to of the cell

Cholesterol

keeps phospholipid in place, stiffens membrane

Concentration Gradient

difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another

Current

flow of charged particle from one point to another

Cytology

study of cells

Diffusion

net movement of a substance from area of higher [ ] to area of lower [ ]

Electrical Potential

difference in concentration of charged particles between one point and another

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

Phagocytosis

type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Pinocytosis

type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances

Enzyme

type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction

Equilibrium Potential

membrane potential at which there is no net movement of a particular ion across cell membrane

K+ = -90mV (+ leaving = -)

Na+ = +66mV (+ entering = +)

Exocytosis

process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) / Interstitial Fluid

fluid outside the cell

Facilitated Diffusion

movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Filtration

process where fluids and small particles are separated from larger ones as they pass through a permeable membrane.

-this process is essential for functions like kidney filtration, where waste and excess substances are removed from the blood to form urine

Hydrostatic Pressure

the pressure within a blood vessel that tends to push water out of the vessel

Gated Channels

opens and closes to allow solutes through only at certain times

Glycocalyx

The external surface of a plasma membrane that is important for cell-to-cell communication, made up of carbohydrate chains

Hydrophilic

attracted to water

Hydrophobic

repulsion to water

Intracellular Fluid (ICF) / Cytosol

fluid within cells

Membrane Potential

communication in the body is partially based on electrical potentials and currents

Osmosis

-diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

-water molecules diffuse across a membrane toward the solution with more solutes

-occurs more rapidly than solute diffusion (because water can cross a membrane through aquaporins which outnumber solute channels)

Peripheral Proteins

bound to the surface of the membrane, not embedded across the cell membrane

Passive Transport

no energy needed, substance moves down gradient

Permeability

the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to allow liquids or gases to pass through it

Impermeable

unable to be passed through

Permeable

able to be passed through

Selectively Permeable

allows some materials to move freely, restricts other materials based on:

size

charge

shape

lipid solubility

Phospholipid Bilayer

double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes

Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

flexible, selectively permeable (having pores or openings) boundary that helps control what enters and leave the cell

Primary Active Transport

pumping solutes against a concentration gradient using ATP directly

ex: sodium potassium pump

Resting Membrane Potential

charge difference across plasma membrane

-typically: 70 millivolts (mV) in an unstimulated, "resting" neuron

Secondary Active Transport

ATP is required indirectly to establish a concentration gradient of one substance in order to passively transport another

Sex Cells

germ cells or reproductive cells, male sperm, female oocytes (develop into the ova)

Simple Diffusion

movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, no energy required

Sodium-Potassium Pump

one ATP powers the movement of three sodium ions (Na+) out, and two potassium ions (K+) in

Somatic Cells

all body cells except sex cells

Symport/cotransport

carrier that moves two or more solutes simultaneously in the same direction

ex: sodium-glucose transporters

Transcytosis

transport into, across, and then out of cell

Transmembrane Proteins

transmembrane proteins are integral proteins that do not extend all the way through the membrane

Uniport

carrier that moves one type of solute

ex: calcium pump

Vesicles

small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

Vesicular Transport

moves large particles, fluid droplets, or numerous molecules through the membrane or across the cell using vesicles

channel

Although the textbook specifies that facilitated diffusion involves carrier proteins, the

more widely accepted definition within biology refers to facilitated diffusion as a process

that uses a ___ protein (types of transmembrane proteins) to facilitate the

movement of substances across the membrane

cytosol

The clear, structureless gel in a cell is its ___

transmembrane

The Na+ K+ pump is a ___ protein

d

Which of the following processes could occur ONLY in the plasma membrane of a living cell?

a. facilitated diffusion

b. simple diffusion

c. filtration

d. active transport

e. osmosis

osmosis

Aquaporins are transmembrane proteins that promote ___