A-Level Sociology - Beliefs Sociologists
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Who describes the segregation of the sexes in religion (women cannot touch the Qur'an when menstruatrating) as the devaluation of women?
Holm
Who argues that the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church's deep unease about the emancipation of women?
Woodhead
Who argues that early religions often placed women at the center (earth mother goddesses, fertility cults)?
Armstrong
Who argues that religion is not the direct cause of female subordination - instead this is patriarchy.
El Saadawi
Who argues that there are religious forms of feminism, where women use religion to gain freedom and respect?
Woodhead
Who found that in Colombia, belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women as they can use religion to increase their power and influence?
Brusco
Who argues that the religious beliefs of Calvinism helped to bring about major social change - one of the reasons for the emergence of modern capitalism?
Weber
Who argues that the 'spirit of capitalism' is based on the systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake, rather than for consumption?
Weber
List the Calvinistic beliefs.
Predestination, Divine Transcendence, Asceticism, The Idea of A Vocation/Calling
Who argues that before Calvinism, the idea of a religious vocation meant renouncing everyday life to join a convent or monastery (other-worldly asceticism)?
Weber
Who argues that Calvinism introduces 'this-worldly asceticism'?
Weber
Who argued that the failure of capitalism to take off in ancient China and India was due to the lack of religious belief system that would have spurred its development?
Weber
Who argues that Weber overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in brining capitalism into being?
Kautsky
Who argues that it is technological change, not ideas, the caused capitalism?
Tawney
Who argued that the reason Scotland was slow to develop capitalism even with a large Calvinist population was because of the lack of investment in capital and skilled labour?
Marshall
Who compares two examples of the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America that have tried to change society?
Bruce
Who describes the struggle of the black civil rights movement as an example of religiously motivated social change?
Bruce
Who says that the black clergy were the backbone of the civil rights movement?
Bruce
Who sees religion in the context of social change as an ideological resource?
Bruce
What four things did Bruce identify as ways in which religious organizations are equipped to support social change?
Moral high ground, channelling dissent, acting as an honest broker, mobilising public opinion.
Why does Bruce suggest that the New Christian Right have been largely unsuccessful in achieving its aims?
It's campaigners don't cooperate with people from other religious groups, lacks widespread support.
In Bruce's view, why has the New Christian right failed at its attempt to impose Protestant fundamentalist morality on others?
America has liberal and democratic values.
Who argues that religion has a dual character as it both legitimates inequality and challenges the status quo?
Engels
Who argues that religion is an expression of the 'principle of hope' and therefore has a dual character?
Bloch
When did liberation theology emerge and in what religion?
At the end of the 1960s in the Catholic Church in Latin America
What were the factors that led to liberation theology?
Increased poverty and slums, human rights abuses, growing commitment among catholic priests to an ideology that supported the poor.
Who argued that liberation theology played an important part in resisting state terror and bringing about democracy?
Casanova
Who believes that religion can be a revolutionary force?
Maduro
Who contrasts liberation theology with Pentecostalism? (Option for the poor vs option of the poor).
Lehmann
Who argues that millenarian movements expect the total and imminent transformation of this world by supernatural means?
Worsley
Who studied cargo cults in the Western Pacific?
Worsley
Who argues that when hegemony is established, the ruling class can rely on popular consent to rule, rather than coercion?
Gramsci
Who argues that religion can help workers see through the ruling class hegemony by offering a vision of a better, fairer world even whilst there is hegemony?
Gramsci
Who applied Gramsci's ideas to class struggles for coalminers and textile workers?
Billings
What three ways in which religion either supported or challenged the employer's hegemony did Billings identify?
Leadership, organisation, support.
Who estimates that in 1851, 40% or more of the adult population of Britain attended church on Sundays?
Crockett
Who argued that Western societies had been undergoing a long-term process of secularisation?
Wilson
As of 2015, how much of the adult population in the UK attended church on Sunday?
4%
Who identifies rationalisation and disenchantment as a reason for secularisation?
Weber
Who argued that the growth of a technological worldview has largely replaced religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen?
Bruce
Who argues that structural differentiation has happened to religion? Industrialisation has meant that religion has become a smaller and more specialized institution?
Parsons
What does Parsons argue that the structural differentiation of religion has led to?
Disengagement
Who argues that religion is privatised?
Bruce
Who argues that the decline of community has led to religion losing its hold over individuals?
Wilson
Who sees industrialisation as undermining the consensus of religious beliefs?
Bruce
Who argues that the plausibility of beliefs is undermined by alternatives?
Bruce
Who argues against the view that the decline of community causes the decline of religion because a community does not have to be in a particular area?
Aldridge
Who says that another cause of secularization is a trend towards religious diversity because it causes a crisis of credibility for religion?
Berger
Who identified cultural defence and cultural transition as two counter-trends that go against secularisation theory.
Bruce
Who argues that religious diversity can strengthening a religious groups commitment to its existing beliefs rather than undermining them?
Beckford
Who claimed that America was a secular society because religion is superficial?
Wilson
Who identifies 'secularisation from within'?
Bruce
Who argued that opinion polls exaggerate church attendance rates?
Hadaway
Who identifies a trend towards practical relativism - the acceptance of the view that others are entitled to hold beliefs that are different to ones own?
Bruce
Who argues that we are seeing a change in religion, away from obligation and towards consumption?
Davie
Who talks about believing without belonging? (People hold religious beliefs but don't want to join organizations)
Davie
Who notes a trend towards vicarious religion? (Religion practiced by an active minority on behalf of a majority who then experience religion second hand)
Davie
Who says that evidence shows that both church attendance and belief in God are declining?
Voas and Crockett
Who says that people have become spiritual shoppers?
Hervieu-Leger
Who argues that believing without belonging is the result of postmodern society changing the nature of religion?
Lyon
Who distinguishes between online religion and religion online?
Helland
Who argues that we are now in a period of re-enchantment?
Lyon
Who conducted the Kendal Project?
Heelas et al
Who talks about the holistic milieu?
Heelas and Woodhead
Who argues that serious commitment to New Age beliefs is weak?
Glendinning and Bruce
Who argues for religious market theory/rational choice theory?
Stark and Bainbridge
Who says that religion is attractive between it provides us with compensators?
Stark and Bainbridge
Who argues that the growth of televangelism in America shows that religious participation is supply-led?
Hadden and Shupe
Who argues that Japan is another society where a free market in religion has stimulated participation?
Stark
Who show that high levels of religious participation exist in Catholic countries where the church has monopoly?
Norris and Inglehart
Who talks about existential security theory as an explanation for why people who already feel secure have a low demand for religion?
Norris and Ingelhart
Who found that the more the state spends on welfare, the lower the level of religious participation is?
Gill and Lundegaarde
Who argues that Norris and Ingelhart only see religion as a negative response to deprivation and ignore the positive reasons people have for religious participation?
Vasquez
Who argues that fundamentalists have an 'us and them' mentality?
Davie
Who notes that fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women is fixed for all time by divine decree?
Hawley
Who argues that fundamentalism occurs when those who hold orthodox beliefs feel threatened by modernity?
Davie
Who argues that fundamentalism is the product of and a reaction to globalisation?
Giddens
Who contrasts fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism? (being tolerant of the views of others and modifying beliefs in light of new information)
Giddens
Who distinguishes between resistance identity and project identity in response to postmodernism?
Castells
Who sees fundamentalism (which is certain) as a response to living in a postmodern society which is uncertain?
Bauman
Who argues that we cannot focus on globalisation being the cause of religious fundamentalism when conflicts occur in the middle east because of local elites failing to improve the standards of living?
Haynes
Who argues that fundamentalism is confined to monotheistic religions?
Bruce
Who argues that there are two origins of fundamentalist movement - in the West vs in the Third World?
Bruce
Who introduces the idea of secular fundamentalism in the second phase of modernity? - France and Hijabs
Davie
Who sees religion being kept out of the secular public sphere as a form of cultural racism?
Ansell
Who sees fundamentalism as a form of recreated memories in societies that have forgotten their historical religious traditions?
Hervieu-Leger
Who talks about the clash of civilisations and sees history as a struggle of progress against barbarism?
Huntington
Who argues that Huntington is an example of orientalism - stereotyping Eastern nations and people as untrustworthy?
Jackson
Who argues that hostility towards the West is because of Western foreign policy being imposed in the Middle East?
Armstrong
Who talks about Hinduism and consumerism?
Nanda
Who talks about hindu ultra-nationalism?
Nanda
Who argues that Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a functional equivalent to Weber's protestant ethic?
Berger
Who attributes the success of Pentecostalism as a global religion to its ability to incorporate local beliefs?
Lehmann
Who distinguished between a church and a sect?
Troeltsch
Who describes denominations as lying between churches and sects?
Niebuhr
Who categorises new religious movements? (Rejecting, accomodating, affirming)
Wallis
Who rejects the idea of constructing typologies and argues that the differences between religious organizations should be distinguished between using the degree of conflict between the group and wider society?
Stark and Bainbridge
Who say that sects and cults are in conflict with wider society?
Stark and Bainbridge
Who talk about audience cults, client cults, and cultic movements?
Stark and Bainbridge
Who argues that marginalization is a reason for the growth of new religious movements because of the theodicy of deprivilege?
Weber