Roman History: Key Concepts from Republic to Empire

Mediterranean Sea

The largest of the three seas that surrounded the Italian Peninsula and was the most important for trading overseas

Latins (Latium)

Farmers and herders that settled in the region of Latium from 1500-1000 BC

Etruscans

The group of people who had the most influence on Italy. They took over Latium and surrounded the city of Rome. They also created dress, military tactics, and organizations the Romans would eventually adopt.

Legion

A group of 5,000-6,000 men who were broken into 10 cohorts with 500 men in each. They also had a centurion in each group that commanded 80 men each.

Patricians

The rich, upperclass people of Rome who had much power, the ability to vote if they were a male over 21, and had the ability to hold office.

Plebians

the middle, lower class people of Rome that were not allowed to run or hold office, but were allowed to vote as long as they were a male who was 21.

Consul

Two males who were elected each year in charge of running the government and commanding the army.

Praetor

One man who was in charge of the civil law for Roman citizens and later in charge of all law.

Senate

300 patricians who were in charge of making all laws and had to serve for their entire life.

Centuriate Assembly

A group of elected consuls/praetors who were mostly wealthy.

Council of Plebs

Elected officials in charge of representing the common people.

Law of Nations

A group of people who represented all Romans and non-Romans. They established standards of justice for all people. They also created the standards of innocence until proven guilty, self defense during trial, and judges that must be impartial.

Punic Wars

Three wars where Romans fought against Carthage empire for expansion of their empire. It resulted in Carthaginian defeat and Rome extending its empire through Spain and Carthage.

Carthage

The peninsula that took land in Spain and led Rome to cause a revolt which started the Second Punic War.

Hannibal

The commander of the Carthaginian army who created the military tactic of double envelopment. He led troops that created the first major Roman defeat. He also used elephants in war which had never been seen before.

Battle of Cannae

The battle where Hannibal used a new military tactic called double envelopment to defeat Rome. Hannibal also used psychological warfare with elephants to help win the battle. After this defeat, Rome had to rebuild its entire army.

Battle of Zama

The battle where Hannibal and his army were officially defeated by the Romans in 202BC. Carthage lost all of Spain and had to give it to Rome. Spain then becomes a Roman providence and a part of the Roman empire.

Marius

A consul who made important military changes like recruiting landless poor people and promising them land. These recruits swore loyalty to him making him more powerful and gaining full control.

Sulla

A general who defeated Marius and returned the power to the Senate. This defeat taught the citizens of Rome a powerful lesson.

First Triumvirate

A government type ruled by three people: Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar

A war hero who marched his army across the "rubicon" which led to the defeat of Pompey. Caesar was then made dictator and gave the poor farmers land back. This led the Senate to be angry and eventually caused his assination in 44BC.

Ides of March

The day Julius Caesar was assassinated by the people he trusted.

Second Triumvirate

The major emerge of three men: Octavian, Julius Caesar's nephew, Antony, Julius Caesar's army man, and Marcus Ledipus, commander of cavalry.

Antony

Julius Caesar's warrant who allied with Cleopatra VII of Egypt. He had plans to defeat Octavian with her alliance, but was defeated. He then assassinated himself because he didn't want to live under Octavian's rule.

Octavian (Augustus)

The man who defeated Antony and Cleopatra and wanted to make Rome a Republic again. He was the first emperor of Rome and was responsible for many militaristic creations like the Praetorian guard. He also had a very strong army and was popular among the people.

Cleopatra

The Queen of Egypt who allied with Antony to destroy Octavian. When Octavian defeated them, she poisoned herself so she didn't have to live under his rule.

Emperor

The title of Imperator (commander-in-Chief) given to a person in Rome. They were typically military generals or had major involvement in the Roman military. The title also gave them full authority over the aspects of the city.

Praetorian Guard

The person/bodyguard responsible for protecting the emperor of Rome and all of their family. They typically wore the color purple and had great importance in the military. They could be very dangerous as well because they had much political power and could turn against the emperor.

Varius

The Roman commander who lost three legions in the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. His forces lost to Germanic tribes after failing to stabilize Rome's borders. His defeat taught a lesson to the people that Roman armies aren't invincible.

Nero

A Roman Emperor who ruled 54 to 68 AD. He was most known for his architectural advancements on Rome like the Roman bath and dome structure. He was said to have done some bad things though, like killing his mother and possibly setting a fire on the city on purpose in order to reconstruct. He also liked to sing and dance and performed for the rich people often.

Pax Romana

A term that translates to Roman peace. It is known as the period in Roman history where the city of Rome had the most peace.

Rhine River

One of the two main rivers that border Rome from northern people. It also allowed for major transport of people, soldiers, and goods.

Danube River

The other main river that borders Rome from the northern people. It also allowed for military camps and forts to be built around it for the Roman military.

Dacia

The region located north of the Danube that the Romans captured under Emperor Trajan's rule. They then made it a part of their empire and made many advancements.

Sinai Peninsula

The region located to the east of Egypt that the Romans captured under Emperor Trajan's rule. They then made it a part of their empire and made many advancements.

Hadrians Wall

A huge defensive wall built under the command of Hadrian. It marked the frontier that separated Rome from Britain and stretched over 73 miles.

Naples

The key port in Roman society. The port allowed for prosperous trading and the importing of goods such as perfume, spices, and silk.

Latifundia

Large farming estates in central and south Italy. They were used by farmers, the most common Roman occupation to make a living

Concrete

The major building material in Rome that allowed builders to create arches, domes and vault architecture. It also allowed them to make statues.

Aqueducts

An engineering piece used as a way to deliver water over long distances and to different parts of the city of Rome.

Virgil

The man who wrote the epic poem Aeneid. The poem contained 9,829 lines of words and was the Roman version of the Greek Iliad and Odyssey. After he passed, the poem was fully published by Augutus.

Horace

The man who wrote satires for Rome. They contained a sneaky way to make fun of someone in politics using comedy.

Livy

The man who wrote The History of Rome. This contained 142 volumes with only 35 of them being located. He didn't use much of the historical method and instead told more stories in the writing.

Paterfamilias

The latin word for father. The rule in Rome that stated all men called the decisions for their families no matter the circumstance.

Sparticus

A gladiator who led a revolt against Rome. This revolt consisted of 120,00 slaves and the group defeated 2 Roman legions. He was eventually defeated by Cracuss, and the Romans crucified 6,000 of his followers in 71 BC.

Insulae

A six story dwelling made of concrete and wood. These buildings were a huge fire threat since fire was used as a main source of warmth. They were also designed for the poor citizens of Rome.

Circus Maximus

A huge racetrack that was designed for Roman entertainment. It was the first major entertainment center and displayed chariot races along with gladiator fights for all Roman citizens.

Collosuem

The huge amphitheater used for Roman entertainment. It was designed to host games for Roman citizens no matter what class they were. The rich got front seats, the middle class and men got the middle seats, and all women and poor people sat all the way at the top. The structure also put on shows like gladiator fights, animal hunting, and races.

Judea

A Jewish Kingdom located in Rome. They made a providence in AD 6, which led to religious conflict. This conflict broke out because the Jews were monotheistic.

Procurator

A person who was in charge of being the administrator over the Jewish Province. They commanded a Roman garrison to keep control over the people.

Monotheism

The believing in only one God. It was a thought process that wasn't accepted by other religions when it was first taught to the Jewish people.

Jesus of Nazareth

The man who was the Prophet of the Jews. He was an itinerant preacher who gathered apostles. He taught precepts to the people in conflict to Jewish and Roman religion. His most major precept was that God was a God of Mercy, not revenge.

Heresy

The believing or opinion that Christian religion was not acceptable. The thought that all contrary ideas to the religion were the only right beliefs.

Simon Peter

The man who was the leader of the apostles. He was considered to be the first Christian Pope and was responsible for spreading the influence of Christianity to the west. He was eventually crucified and asked to upside down on the cross because he felt unworthy to die the same way as Jesus.

Paul

The man who was responsible for spreading the influence of Christianity to the east. He was eventually persecuted for his beliefs and disrespecting Roman orders and authority.

New testament

The new created version of the First Testament. It was the second book of the bible to spread the ideas of Jesus and his followers on Christianity. It was written in Greek and Hebrew and contained the four gospels including Simon Peter and Paul.

Clergy

Priests or brothers who took vows and implemented them into their daily life and to the people. They dedicated their entire life to God and his ideas.

Laity

Non-ordinated members of the Church. They helped out the Clergy with the organization of the Church and the concepts of the religion

Constantine

The man who was in the Roman military. He promised God if he won the battle he would convert religions. He eventually won and adopted Christianity as his religion.

Edict of Milan (313)

The rule that proclaimed official toleration of Christianity by the state.

Theodosius The Great

The emperor who became a Christian as well. He also created the concept Edict of Thessalonica.

Edict of Thessalonica (380)

The rule where Christianity was declared the official religion of Rome.

Plague

A pandemic that wiped out and killed ten to fifteen percent of the Roman population. It was responsible for a part of the empire's decline and fall.

Mercenaries

Soldiers that were hired to represent and fight for the Roman army. They were paid to be a part of it, but most of the time they weren't reliable and loyal to Rome. They also didn't try or make many sacrifices while in battle.

Diocletian

The Roman empire responsible for splitting the empire into 4 provinces. Each of these provinces had one general commander each. Each commander was responsible for making fast decisions for their section of the empire and also had to report to his orders.

Inflation

A major problem in the Roman empire that caused money to become less valuable. The emperors of the time reduced the amount of coins made in order to pay for other expenses.

Constantinople

The eastern capital of Greek Byzantium that was renamed/rebuilt by the Roman empire. It contained a forum, palaces, an amphitheater, and baths. The building was used as a strategic location for defense. The capital eventually became the center of the eastern empire.

Huns

A group of people who came from Asia to invade Rome. They forced Visigoths from home to do so.

Visigoths

People from Germania who sacked Rome in 410. They did this after they defeated a Roman army.

Vandals

A group of people who sacked Rome in 455. They completely destroyed the city and originated the term "vandal" we use in modern day.

Romulus Augustulus

The Roman emperor who was overthrown by a German general in 476. This ended the western Roman empire.

Byzantine Empire

The title given to the eastern Roman empire as it thrived with Constantinople as its center. It remained stable for 977 years.

Explain how the terrain of Italy affected the Italian peoples

The terrain of Italy consisted of low and rocky mountains, large fertile plains, many hills, inland location, and huge rivers. These features allowed for many groups of people to develop in different ways. The low mountains allowed the people to not be isolated which led to all of the people adapting the same culture. The large fertile plains were excellent to grow crops. This led to a huge production of food and all of the people were able to eat. The many hills the peninsula was established on allowed the land to easily be defended during attack. Finally, the huge rivers allowed goods and people to easily transport through Rome. One of the most important water sources that allowed this was the Tiber River.

Explain the various reasons Rome was able to be so successful at conquering the Italian peninsula

Rome was able to be so successful at conquering the Italian Peninsula because it was centrally located and was surrounded by many seas and was just out of the Mediterranean. The Romans had all ideal trading sources since water surrounded all three sides of their land. This allowed them to easily transport goods and people where they needed to go. Rome was also easy to govern since it was located in the middle of the peninsula. This allowed both the north and the south to be just as equally accessible. The peninsula was also safe from the pirates in the Mediterranean by being just inland from the sea.

Explain the organization of the Roman government and the three parts of Roman society

The organization of the Roman government consisted of a Republic. The Republic was adopted after bad experiences with kings. The government had 2 chief officers Consuls and a Praetor. These people were in charge of the law for Roman citizens and commandment of the army/government. Next, the government had a Senate, a group of 300 patricians who made laws and served life terms. Finally, there were secondary assemblies like the centuriate assembly and council of Plebs. These people were in charge of representing the common people and answering to the Senate. Rome had three parts of society: Patricians, Plebians, and slaves. Patricians were the rich class of people. The men had the ability to vote and hold office. The Plebians were the middle and lower class of Rome. The males were allowed to vote, but couldn't hold office. The slaves had little to no rights. They could own property, get married or vote for office.

Explain how concepts of Roman law affect modern law in the United States

The concepts of Roman law affect modern law in the United States because they established laws of justice still used today. The laws of justice consisted of innocence until proven guilty, self defense during trial, and judges which must be impartial. In the United States, people charged with wrongdoing are still innocent until they are proven guilty during their trial. In modern day you are allowed to defend yourself when it is your turn to speak while in trial or in court. Also, in the United States the judge you receive during trial must be impartial and must be able to see through multiple accounts of what could have possibly happened in a crime scene and what is true or false.

Explain the origins, major events, and effects of the Punic Wars

The origin of the Punic Wars consisted of when both Rome and Carthage wanted the providence of Sicily. This conflict then started the First Punic War, where Rome invaded the island of Sicily and made it their first providence in their empire. During this war Carthage also took more land in Spain, which inspired Rome to revolt. Next was the Second Punic War, which was caused by interference in Spain by the Romans. During this war General Hannibal attempted to invade Rome through the Alps. He used double envelopment and physiological warfare tactics, including war elephants to successfully defeat Rome in the Battle of Cannae. These outcomes forced Rome to rebuild their entire army force. After the army was rebuilt, Rome invaded Spain and Carthage itself. They defeated Hannibal and his army in the Battle of Zama. Spain then became the second Roman province. Finally, The Third Punic War occurred, where Rome attacked Carthage and defeated them for good. Carthage became the third Roman province called Africa. During this time they also captured Macedonia and gained the province of Pergamum; the first Asian Province of Rome.

Explain how the Roman military came to have such as large influence on the Roman government

The Roman military had such a large influence on the government because the army was the most essential part of power. The Senate needed the military to uphold the most power as possible. When generals of the military turned their recruits' loyalty to them, The Senate almost lost full power on multiple accounts. Eventually, Julius Caesar revolted against the Senate and became a dictator. The Senate had no choice but to give up power because the military was on his side. The Roman military also caused the collapse of the Roman Republic, causing an empire. Many men fought for the power of all of Rome, making it dangerous for the Senate to ever receive power back. Without the Roman military, the men would have never been able to fight for power over the Senate.

Explain how Julius Caesar came to be the dictator of Rome

Julius Caesar became dictator of Rome for a multitude of leading events/reasons. First, he was one of three men part of the First Triumvirate government. During his membership the power was equally divided between the three of them, with Julius having power of Gaul. All men wanted every source of power for themselves which led to problems. Crassus died in battle which gave Pompey command over everything. This led Caesar to march his army across the rubicon. Julius and his army defeated Pompey and he was made dictator of Rome in 45BC. During his role as dictator, he made sure all the people were loyal to him. He did this by mankind reforms which included giving the poor farmers the land the Senate took back to them. This also included land being taken away from the Senate, which made them angry. A year later, Caesar was assassinated by the people he trusted most in the Senate. His assaination allowed for the day "Ides of March" to be celebrated and dedicated to him.

Explain how Octavian became Augustus and how he changed the Roman Empire with his leadership

Octavian eventually became Augustus through a number of events. He defeated Antony and Celopatra and took charge of Rome. Once he received power, his main goal was to make Rome a Republic again. To achieve this, he gave some power back to the Senate in order to gain recognition. The Senate then gave him the title of Augustus which meant "revered one." He gained popularity from the people and remained with a strong army that was his true source of power. Octavian made many military advancements as well, like the Praetorian guard. He made huge legionaries of 150,00 men which was a great number to be seen during the time period. After he passed, he left behind a legacy of balance in Roman society. He created the Pax Romana; a long period of peace that allowed for Rome to further develop. Without his leadership, Rome would not have been as protected and wouldn't have had such a strong military force.

Explain the reforms of the "5 good emperors" during the Pax Romana

The reforms of the "5 good emperors" during Pax Romana consisted of many things. First Nerva reformed land laws in favor of the poor citizens of Rome. He also revised taxation on the city and ruled from 96-98 A.D. Then Trajan expanded the empire to its greatest extent. He also implemented the construction of many public works. He ruled from 98-117 A.D. Next Hadrian constructed Hadrian's wall in Britain. He also erected many fine buildings and codified Roman law. He ruled from 117-138 A.D. Next Antoninus Pius promoted art, science, and constructed public works. He also made legal reform and new provisions for orphans. He ruled from 138-161 A.D. Finally, Marcus Aurellus helped unify the empire economically. He also made even more legal reforms and ruled from 161-180 A.D. All 5 of these Emperors were responsible for ruling class reforms, ending executions without fair trials, maintaining peace and law and order in the empire, and advancing infrastructure.

Describe the farthest geographic reaches of the Roman Empire at its height.

The farthest geographical reaches of the Roman empire during its height consisted of many landmarks. First the empire conquered Dacia, Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula. Then Hadrian's wall was constructed to extend the empire to the border of Britain. In the end, The Roman empire ended up stretching east to Mesopotamia. Then all the way North to Britain, and west to Gaul (France) and Spain. Finally the empire stretched all the way south to North Africa.

Explain the economy of the Roman Empire

The economy of Rome was prosperous during the expansion of the empire. The key port for trade was Naples which allowed Romans to import spices, silk, and perfume from overseas. Trade also prospered and allowed for the worldwide exchange of goods. The economy didn't really affect the people in Rome, many of them were still farmers and there were still huge gaps between the small, middle, and large class. The middle class was an extremely small group in the city making it more common to be poor.

Explain characteristics of Roman art, architecture and literature

The characteristics of Roman art consisted of making people look realistic. They made statues and paintings based on the exact features of that particular person. Even imperfections were incorporated into the pieces. Roman architecture consisted of much of what Greek architecture looked like. They used temples and columns in their buildings, but they also used concrete to make arches, domes, and vaults in structures. This allowed for more safer buildings and more durability. Roman literature consisted of history books, epic poems, and satires. These types of writings were inspired from the Greeks, but the Romans made their own versions and modifications to how they were produced.

Explain the operation of the Roman family unit and the position of women in Roman society

The operation of a Roman family unit was under the command of the males only. The men made all decisions for their household and represented them in voting. The upper class children got a well rounded education from their tutor. This was mainly for the males only, females were likely to only receive little education. The average Roman boy learned the basic reading and writing, family values, and the trade of his father. Women played a role in society as well. They were considered weaker and needed a male escort, however they were more free than the Greek women. The legal marriage age for them was 12 and their marriages were arranged. Divorce was almost impossible unless they were being abused. They also still could not vote or own property. Later on in the second century, they gained more rights like the ability to own or inherit property and the ability to attend public events.

Explain the nature of slavery in ancient Rome

The nature of slavery in Ancient Rome consisted of many things. First they did the farming/building labor for the Romans. Some slaves who were educated were in demand to be doctors or provide a specific trade for the city. Revolts were rare, but did occur. The biggest revolt against the Roman empire was led by Sparticus. He joined in with 120,000 slaves and defeated 2 Roman legions. Sparticus was eventually defeated by Crassus and killed. 6,000 of his followers were also crucified and hung along trees as a warning to outsiders and other slaves.

Describe living conditions, entertainment and public life in Roman cities

The living conditions in the Roman city life were different depending on the class of the citizen. All citizens were crammed and experienced a huge crime increase. The poor citizens of Rome lived in an Insulae, 6 story dwellings made of wood prone to fires. They had no indoor plumbing which led to waste on the streets. This caused pandemic outbreaks and deaths among the people. The rich citizens in Rome lived in villas. The villas had outhouses and they were able to avoid public waste on their streets. They were also away from the huge crowded areas, but it was still busy. The entertainment in the Roman city was first held at Circus Maximus. This theatre displayed gladiator fights and chariot races before the construction of the Colosseum. After the colosseum was constructed, it became the biggest and most popular Roman amphitheater. Every citizen was welcome to watch the games and get free concessions. However, they were seated differently depending on gender and class. The public life in Roman cities was made of many community based buildings. They had baths, markets, theaters, government buildings, and temples that were welcoming to the city. There were also food and shelter programs for those who needed it.

Explain the rise and spread of Christianity in ancient Rome and its effects on Roman authority

The rise of Christainty first started with Jesus of Nazareth. He was an itinerant preacher who gathered apostles throughout the Jewish Province. The religion made across major points that God was Mercy, not revenge. This idea influenced the average Jews and gave them the sense that even if life was going bad or a mistake was made, God would offer them peace. The idea of monotheism spread throughout the province which led Jewish leaders to discover the concepts. They claimed it was heresy and the message became very controversial. Roman authority believed in polytheism, and once the idea of monotheism began to spread the Romans disagreed. They believed polytheism was the only right religion. They thought monotheism was wrong and wanted polytheism to remain as the only religion for the Romans. Temporarily, they let the Christians do their own thing as long as they paid taxes and provided men for Rome.

Explain how the persecution of Christians actually made Christianity grow stronger

The persecution of Christians made Christianity grow stronger because the Romans drew the Christians out of Rome. They took their beliefs and religion along with them as they settled in many different parts of the world. Once they settled, they spread their culture and ideas to the other people living there. This caused the religion to multiply by the day. The Christians believed a few seconds of pain was a peaceful death. Their soul would then be in heaven, which was the dream. The people and religion only became stronger after this thought, since watching others die didn't bring their spirit or beliefs down.

Explain how Christianity became the official religion of Rome and its effects on the empire

Christianity became the official religion of Rome through a multitude of events. First, Constantine, a military member, promised to God that if he won his battle he would convert to Crustianity. He eventually won, and issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD. This rule proclaimed official toleration of Christtuanity by the state. It ended the persecution of Christians in Rome. Next Theodosius the great converted religions and became a Christian as well. He then issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD. This rule stated Christianity was the official religion of Rome. It became the most popular and main religion in the empire. These changes left many effects on how the empire worked. Christians were given roles of higher power in ruling. Many advancements were made to the Church like the addition of new centers of power. It also allowed for the people in Rome to change and convert their religion, since the emperor had a major influence on its citizens.

Compare and contrast the various reasons the Roman empire declined and fell

There were various reasons on why the Roman empire fell. First, historians believe Christianity taking over changed and distracted the people from the issues and they instead focused on how to ensure they go to the afterlife. Second, historians believe traditional Roman values declined as non-italians gained prominence in the empire. Third, historians believe lead poisoning in the lead pipes in aqueducts contaminated the water and drove leaders mentally unstable. Fourth, historians believe a plague wiped away 1/10 of the Roman population. Fifth, historians believe the Romans got lazy with technology and didn't make many innovations towards the city. Sixth, historians believe the political system was not up to the task of administering a large empire. Finally, historians believe the weakness, mercenaries, and messy legions caused less effectiveness.