General Biology Reviewer: Microscopy, Cell Structure, and Cell Division

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering key historical milestones, microscope types and components, prokaryotic vs eukaryotic features, organelle functions, and stages of cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

Nimrud Lens

A piece of rock crystal dated to 710 BC used as an early optical device.

Reading Stone

A glass sphere placed on top of text around 1000 AD to magnify text for reading.

Book of Optics

A foundational optical work written in 1021 AD by the Muslim scholar Ibn al-Haytham.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Known as the Father of Microbiology; first observed living cells in 1676.

Joseph Jackson Lister

A researcher who reduced spherical aberration in microscopes in 1830.

Abbe Equation

A mathematical formula written by Ernst Abbe in 1874 related to microscopic resolution.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

An electron microscope built by Ernst Ruska in 1942 where an electron beam does not pass through the sample, and lenses combine electrons into a focused beam.

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

An electron microscope created by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll in 1931 that allows electron beams to travel through a vacuum tube and pass through the specimen.

Compound Microscope

An optical or light microscope that uses visible light to brighten objects, with a maximum magnification ranging from $2000\times$ to $2500\times$.

Fluorescence Microscope

A type of compound microscope that utilizes varying wavelengths of light.

Phase Contrast Microscope

A microscope invented by Frits Zernike in 1932 equipped with a phase contrast objective lens.

Polarizing Microscope

A microscope that uses a polarizer and an analyzer to cross-polarize light.

Metallurgical Microscope

A microscope that provides transmitted or reflected light shining onto the objective lens.

Base

The heavy bottom structural component supporting the entire microscope.

Arm

The curved vertical bar connecting the base of the microscope to its head.

Head/Body

The upper structural part of the microscope housing the internal mirrors.

Eyepiece/Ocular Lens

The optical lens situated at the top through which an observer looks.

Revolving Nosepiece

The rotating turret structure holding 3 to 5 objective lenses.

Objective Lenses

Primary magnifying components consisting of $4\times$ (scanning), $10\times$ (low power), $40\times$ (high power), and $100\times$ (oil immersion).

Coarse Adjustment Knob

A focus knob that moves the stage up and down to quickly locate the focus.

Fine Adjustment Knob

A focus knob that makes tiny, precise movements to sharpen the focus.

Stage

The flat platform structure where the glass slide is placed.

Condenser

An optical component lens positioned underneath the stage.

Iris Diaphragm

A rotating disk situated beneath the condenser used to regulate light.

Prokaryotes

Organisms made of cells that lack a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, such as bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryotes

Organisms possessing cells with a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

Histones

Proteins wrapped around by DNA to compress eukaryotic genetic material.

Nucleoid Region

The un-enclosed cytoplasmic area in prokaryotes where circular DNA is located.

Cell Wall

The outermost protective layer of a plant cell, composed of cellulose (carbohydrates).

Central Vacuole

A single, large fluid-filled storage organelle distinct to plant cells.

Plastid

A plant cell organelle that houses pigments responsible for cell coloration.

Chloroplast

A plastid containing chlorophyll that conducts photosynthesis.

Chromoplast

A plastid responsible for producing and storing plant pigments.

Centriole

A small, cylindrical structure composed of microtubules involved in forming spindle fibers during cell division.

Lysosome

An animal cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes to break down waste, worn-out cell parts, and foreign materials.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death.

Phospholipid

The primary structural component of the cell membrane, consisting of a hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic lipid tails.

Nucleus

Known as the brain of the cell; encloses cellular DNA and directs cell activities.

Nucleolus

A structure located inside the nucleus responsible for assembling ribosomes.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A membrane network studded with ribosomes that functions in protein synthesis.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A ribosome-free membrane network involved in carbohydrate, steroid, and lipid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle involved in the transitional modification and folding of proteins.

Peroxisome

An organelle that produces hydrogen peroxide ($H_2O_2$) to break down metabolic materials.

Mitochondria

Known as the powerhouse of the cell; produces energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate).

Microtubule

A tube-like protein structure involved in cell division and forming centrioles.

Intermediate Filament

A component of the cytoskeleton responsible for structural support.

Microfilament

A component of the cytoskeleton involved in muscle contraction.

Paul Nurse

An English knight and biologist recognized for research on the cell cycle.

Mitosis

A process of somatic cell division resulting in 2 genetically identical diploid daughter cells.

Prophase

The initial phase of mitosis characterized by chromatin condensing into chromosomes, nuclear envelope disintegration, and spindle fiber formation.

Metaphase

The phase of cell division where spindle fibers attach to kinetochores and centromeres align along the equatorial plate.

Anaphase

The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles by spindle fibers.

Telophase

The final phase of mitosis where chromatids arrive at the poles, chromosomes uncoil, and nuclear envelopes reform.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm resulting in two distinct cells via a cleavage furrow in animal cells or a cell plate in plant cells.

Cleavage Furrow

An indentation forming at the equatorial periphery during cytokinesis in animal cells.

Cell Plate

A structure developing at the midpoint between two groups of chromosomes during cytokinesis in plant cells.

Meiosis

A reductional cell division process occurring in germ cells that produces 4 haploid daughter cells.

Synapsis

The pairing of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosis.

Gametogenesis

The process of producing gametes, consisting of spermatogenesis for sperm cells and oogenesis for egg cells.